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1、The One Against the Many,Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,2,About author:,Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.(1917-2007) : one of Americas most eminent and controversial historians. He was a former Harvard professor and special assistant to President Kennedy. The historian whose more than 20 books shaped discussio
2、ns for two generations about Americas past, and who himself was a provocative(煽动性的), unabashedly(不加掩饰的， 公然的) liberal partisan, most notably in serving in the Kennedy White House, His books, includes The Age of Roosevelt, volumes I, II and III; 小阿瑟施莱辛格,美国著名历史学家和政治评论家。哈佛毕业，曾任美国总统肯尼迪的白宫特别助理，被称为“最了解罗斯福和
3、肯尼迪时代的人”，他支持自由主义，是“美国人争取民主行动”组织的创始人之一。,3,About author:,一千天肯尼迪在白宫 小阿瑟施莱辛格,4,Para 2：The country was blessed by notable advantagesabove all, by the fact that population was scarce in relation to available resources.,Then we can get that as the population spread across the country, the percentage of ara
4、ble land in counties closest to the densest populations declined.,5,Para 3: One factor was the deep faith in education. The historical reason: The first settlers of America is a group of Puritans. They were men of letters, had attended Oxford or Cambridge, and communicated with intellectuals over Eu
5、rope. 据记载，早期移民到马萨诸塞州的人当中，有超过一百个牛津、剑桥的毕业生。在到达新大陆仅仅六年之后，虽然清教徒们还在为基本的生存条件而奋斗，但是他们却克服了重重困难建立了哈佛学院。清教徒期望教会的传道人有高等的学历。 今天的美国人毫无疑问地坚持了清教祖先的优良传统，非常地重视教育。所以可以说清教主义促进了最初美国教育的发展，对美国的教育产生了很大的影响。,6,Para 5： Self-government：It is the principle that the people are the ultimate source of governing authority and thei
6、r general welfare is the only legitimate purpose of government. Representative institutions: It is a system of government institutions that give citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who will work on their behalf.,7,Para 7：hedgehog & fox an allusion from a Greek poet Archilochus Basic
7、ally, human beings are categorized as either “hedgehogs“ or “foxes“. Hedgehogs lives are embodiment of a single, central vision of reality according to which they “feel“, breathe, experience and think - “system addicts“, in short. Foxes live centrifugal than centripetal lives, pursuing many divergen
8、t ends and, generally, possess a sense of reality that prevents them from formulating a definite grand system of “everything“, simply because they “know“ that life is too complex to be squeezed into any Procrustean unitary scheme.,8,Para 7：The fox knows many things, but the hedgehog knows one big th
9、ing.,古希腊诗人Archilochus说过：“狐狸知晓很多事物，而刺猬只懂一件重要的事。” 一方面“刺猬”爱把一切与一种单一的中心观念相联系,形成一种单一的普遍组织原则，他们的存在以及他们所说的一切便有了意义；另一方面，“狐狸”却追求多种目标，这些目标通常或毫无联系或相互矛盾，即使有联系，也仅仅是事件方面的联系。,9,Para 8：Calvinist theology (加尔文主义),Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life. Calvinist believers
10、hold that his faith, rather than his sins, is what will save him.,10,Para 8：Five points of Calvinism 1. Total depravity 人完全堕落无法自救 2. Unconditional election 神无条件拣选罪人 3. Limited atonement 有限的代赎 4. Irresistible grace 不可抗拒的恩典 5. Perseverance of the saints 圣徒蒙保守 这五点教义的英文首字字母恰Tulip，即“郁金香”之义。,Empiricism is
11、 a theory which states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. One of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism, empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory experience, in the formation
12、 of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions; empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences.,Empiricism 经验论,Rationalism 理性主义,rationalism is the view that “regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge“ or “any v
13、iew appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification“. More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory “in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive“. Rationalists believe reality has an intrinsically logical structure. Because of
14、this, rationalists argue that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths. That is to say, rationalists assert that certain rational principles exist in logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall int
15、o contradiction. Rationalists have such a high confidence in reason that proof and physical evidence are unnecessary to ascertain truth in other words, “there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience“. Because of this belief, empiricism is
16、 one of rationalisms greatest rivals.,A priori 先验的,“A priori” is a Latin term used to identify a type of knowledge which is obtained independently of experience. A proposition is known a priori if when judged true or false one does not refer to experience.,Pragmatism 实用主义,Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870.1 Pragmatism is a rejection of the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent,
