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1、http:/ 留学生论文专业定制代写网站留学生Essay写作欺凌对药物滥用的影响Substance abuse in adolescents and young adults as a coping mechanism,due to negative experiences caused by bullying.物质滥用作为青少年和青壮年的一种应对机制，是由于不良经历造成的欺凌。Bullying is a major problem for any adolescent.It can lead to significant emotional and psychological trauma,
2、with potentially long-term implications for mental health and wellbeing(nichd.nih.gov.2016).It is an experience that many adolescents subsequently struggle to overcome and there is evidence that at least some adolescents will resort to the use of alcohol and drugs in order to cope with the negative
3、consequences of bullying(Tharp-Taylor,Haviland&DAmico,2009).If maintained,usage of this sort has the potential to lead to serious Substance Abuse Disorder (SUD;see Zucker,Greenberg and Turrisi 2008).The purpose of this paper is to explore both the scale and character of bullying behaviour in the mod
4、ern western world and the potential of this behaviour to result in adverse, risky or damaging behaviours,including substance abuse,in later life.It also aims to explore the potential therapeutic value of social and/or psychological interventions designed to mitigate the synergistic relationship betw
5、een bullying and substance misuse.It is worth noting,at this point,that in carrying out this literature review on the effects of substance abuse as a coping mechanism,several digital research databases, including PsycInfo and Science Direct,were searched using“bullying”as a key word in combination w
6、ith others such as:“consequences”, “effects”,“impact”,“emotional outcomes”,“emotional impact”, or“victims”.In 1993,the DSM V(see American Psychological Association,2016)redefined behaviour previously categorised as substance abuse and substance dependence as substance use disorder.Substance abuse ca
7、n be defined as a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment.Substances can include,for example,alcohol,cannabis,opiates or cocaine,as per the DSM-V(see American Psychological Association,2016), and involvement in adolescence is a major risk factor for addictio
8、n later in life(for an overview,see Spoth,Greenberg and Turrisi,2008).Early exposure to drugs,alcohol and other potentially toxic substances,at a time when brain structures are still undergoing development and the brain itself remains malleable,has the potential to interfere with normal cognitive de
9、velopment(see NIDA 2014).According to Kolb and Gibb(2011), brain development in mammals can be categorized according to one of eight stages:neurogenesis/gliogenesis,cell migration,cell differentiation, cell maturation,synaptogenesis,synaptic pruning and myelogensis.Both brain development and cogniti
10、ve function is influenced by different environmental events,including sensory stimuli and the presence of psychoactive drugs.Moreover,the influence and impact of such factors has been shown to vary depending on the particular stage of brain development. This has been demonstrated by Kolb,Mychasiuk a
11、nd Gibb(2013),who have shown that an injury suffered as a result of substance abuse during the neuronal maturation phase has a much poorer potential outcome than if it had been suffered during the synaptogenesis phase of development.Research undertaken by Streissguth,Landesman-Dwyer and Smith(1980)h
12、as demonstrated the negative consequences of the introduction of drugs or other substances into the body during periods of rapid neuronal development.Furthermore,Uroslevic,Collins et al.(2015)have proposed that adolescents experience an increased sensitivity of the Behavioral- Activation Approach sy
13、stem(BAS;see also Uroslevic et al.,2012)when presented with substances of abuse.This implies that adolescents with higher sensitivity neurobiological predispositions are at greater risk of substance abuse initiation and excessive alcohol consumption and,in turn,further suggests novel neurobehavioral
14、 methods for the identification of those individuals who may be at risk of further substance abuse problems in the future(Uroslevic,2015).Using a hypothesized path model to fit data from the 2011 Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance System(YRBSS)in their analysis of the relationship between age,gender
15、and bullying(both physical and online),Reed,Nugent&Cooper (2015)suggest that bullying in adolescence may be viewed as a social contagion and a social environmental risk factor that may lead to an increase in anti-social behaviour such as substance abuse.There is no universal definition of bullying.T
16、he first psychological definition of bullying was proposed by Olweus(1986,1993)who argued that“a student is being bullied or victimised when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time to negative actions on the part of one or more other students”.The repetition of aggression toward another person may be direct,e.g.name-calling or physical violence(see Richardson&Green, 2006),or indirect.Indirect(or relational)aggression,by comparison,is performed wit
