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1、 新托福 TPO26 阅读原文( 三)：苏美尔与古代近东的第一个城邦TPO26-3：Sumer and the First Cities of the Ancient Near EastThe earliest of the city states of the ancient Near East appeared at the southern end of the Mesopotamian plain, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq. It was here that the civ
2、ilization known as Sumer emerged in its earliest form in the fifth millennium. At first sight, the plain did not appear to be a likely home for a civilization. There were few natural resources, no timber, stone, or metals. Rainfall was limited, and what water there was rushed across the plain in the
3、 annual flood of melted snow. As the plain fell only 20 meters in 500 kilometers, the beds of the rivers shifted constantly. It was this that made the organization of irrigation, particularly the building of canals to channel and preserve the water, essential. Once this was done and the silt carried
4、 down by the rivers was planted, the rewards were rich: four to five times what rain-fed earth would produce. It was these conditions that allowed an elite to emerge, probably as an organizing class, and to sustain itself through the control of surplus crops.It is difficult to isolate the factors th
5、at led to the next developmentthe emergence of urban settlements. The earliest, that of Eridu, about 4500 B.C.E., and Uruk, a thousand years later, center on impressive temple complexes built of mud brick. In some way, the elite had associated themselves with the power of the gods. Uruk, for instanc
6、e, had two patron godsAnu, the god of the sky and sovereign of all other gods, and Inanna, a goddess of love and warand there were others, patrons of different cities. Human beings were at their mercy. The biblical story of the Flood may originate in Sumer. In the earliest version, the gods destroy
7、the human race because its clamor had been so disturbing to them.It used to be believed that before 3000 B.C.E. the political and economic life of the cities was centered on their temples, but it now seems probable that the cities had secular rulers from earliest times. Within the city lived adminis
8、trators, craftspeople, and merchants. (Trading was important, as so many raw materials, the semiprecious stones for the decoration of the temples, timbers for roofs, and all metals, had to be imported.) An increasingly sophisticated system of administration led in about 3300 B.C.E. to the appearance
9、 of writing. The earliest script was based on logograms, with a symbol being used to express a whole word. The logograms were incised on damp clay tablets with a stylus with a wedge shape at its end. (The Romans called the shape cuneus and this gives the script its name of cuneiform.) Two thousand l
10、ogograms have been recorded from these early centuries of writing. A more economical approach was to use a sign to express not a whole word but a single syllable. (To take an example: the Sumerian word for head”was “sag.”Whenever a word including a syllable in which the sound “sag”was to be written,
11、 the sign for “sag could be used to express that syllable with the remaining syllables of the word expressed by other signs.) By 2300 B.C.E. the number of signs required had been reduced to 600, and the range of words that could be expressed had widened. Texts dealing with economic matters predomina
12、ted, as they always had done; but at this point works of theology, literature, history, and law also appeared.Other innovations of the late fourth millennium include the wheel, probably developed first as a more efficient way of making pottery and then transferred to transport. A tablet engraved abo
13、ut 3000 B.C.E. provides the earliest known example from Sumer, a roofed boxlike sledge mounted on four solid wheels. A major development was the discovery, again about 3000 B.C.E., that if copper, which had been known in Mesopotamia since about 3500 B.C.E., was mixed with tin, a much harder metal, b
14、ronze, would result. Although copper and stone tools continued to be used, bronze was far more successful in creating sharp edges that could be used as anything from saws and scythes to weapons. The period from 3000 to 1000 B.C.E., when the use of bronze became widespread, is normally referred to as
15、 the Bronze Age.TPO26-3 译文：苏美尔与古代近东的第一个城邦古代西亚地区最早的城邦出现在美索不达米亚平原的最南边，这个位于底格里斯河和幼发拉底河之间如今被称为伊拉克的地区。5 000 年前，正是在这里出现了苏美尔文明的早期形态。乍看之下，这个平原并不像是一个(古老)文明 的发源地。这里自然资源稀缺，木材、石料以及金属都极其匮乏。降雨量有限，当地水资源的主要来源是每年冰雪融化导致的冲过平原的洪水。因为该平原在方圆 500 公里内的海拔落差只有 20 米，所以河床(的位置)不断地发生变化。这就使得灌溉系统的规划至关重要，特别是(如何)建造水渠以疏导和保存水资源。这些灌溉工程完
16、成以及河流冲积下的淤泥就会沉积在此处，带来的回报相当可观：其产出量会比靠雨水滋润的土地高出 45 倍。正是这些环境条件使得在该地诞生了一个可能充当管理阶层的“精英” ，这一阶层通过对余粮的控制来养活自己。很难把导致苏美尔文明进一步发展，即城市聚居点的出现的诸多因素孤立起来看待。其中最早的，如公元前 4500 年的埃利都以及之后 1000 年出现的乌鲁克，都以用泥砖建造的令人惊叹的庙宇群为中心。通过某些方式，这些“精英”将自己与神灵之力联系在一起。以乌鲁克为例，这个城邦有两个守护神天神以及众神之主安努和爱与战争女神伊南娜不同的城市还有其他的守护神。人类受神灵庇佑且掌控。圣经中关于洪水的故事可能起源于苏美尔。在最早的版本中，神灵们意图毁灭人类，因为人类太过喧嚣吵闹令诸神厌烦不已。曾经，人们认为公元前 3000 年之前，这些城邦的政治经济生活是以庙宇群为中心的，但是现在看来，这些城邦很可能早期就有世俗的统治者。城邦中生活着管理者们、手工艺人以及商人。(
