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1、Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers,An overview of language learning strategies (LLS) for second and foreign language (L2/FL) teachers. Background of LLS and LLS training, discusses a three step approach teachers may follow in using LLS in their classes, and summarises key refl
2、ections and questions for future research on this aspect of L2/FL education.,A gradual but significant shift over the last few decades resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning. This change reflected in language education and applied linguistics:
3、 the Northeast Conference (1990) entitled “Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner“ and annual “Learners Conferences“ held in conjuction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on “the learner-centred curriculum“ (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and “learner-centredness as language educa
4、tion“ (Tudor, 1996).,Learning Strategies,early definitions reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, essential assumptions that human beings process information and that learning involves such information processing. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as “behavio
5、urs and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning“ which are “intended to influence the learners encoding process“ (p. 315).,Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as “behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information“ (p. 11). Clearly, LS
6、 are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context.,LS are thus used in learning and teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments.,Language Learning Strategies Defined,Within L2/FL education, a num
7、ber of definitions of LLS have been used by key figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language - to incoporate these into ones interlanguage competence“ (p. 67). Rubin (1987) LS “are strategies whi
8、ch contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly“ (p. 22).,OMalley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as “the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information“ (p. 1). (Oxford, 199
9、0a), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS i.e., “In learning ESL, Trang (1) watches U.S. TV soap operas, (2) guesses the meaning of new expressions (3) predicting what will come next“,.language learning strageties specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (ofte
10、n intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language.,Strategies are tools for (4) the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992/1993,
11、p. 18). From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on the product of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), to a greater emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS.,LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learners
12、 “natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills“ (Reid, 1995, p. viii), there is also obvious relationship between language learning style and usual or preferred language learning strategies.,What are the Characteristics of LLS?,Although t
13、he terminology is not always uniform, with some writers using the terms “learner strategies“ (Wendin Chamot & OMalley, 1994), and still others “language learning strategies“ (Oxford, 1990a, 1996),there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS. First, LLS are learne
14、r generated; they are steps taken by language learners. Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen
15、(thoughts, mental processes). Fourth, LLS involve information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.).,When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) note (5)a desire for control and autonomy of learning Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategi
16、es are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner.,Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, (Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989).,Oxfords twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS: (6) allow learners to become more self-directed (7) expand the role of language teachers (8) are problem-oriented (9) involve many aspects, not just the cognitive (10) can be ta
