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1、1,问题解决（1）,思维的普遍形式是问题解决。当我们提出“这是什么？”“为什么”这些问题时，我们就开始了思维活动。 问题解决的研究在心理学中有较长的历史。,2,问题解决（2）,当一个人埋头思考时，其过程是十分隐蔽的。今天的实验心理学不仅研究问题解决的外部行为，而且还注意内部心理机制的研究。 问题的任务是用从0到9的数字分别代替这些字母并要求算式计算正确，作为提示，D=5。,3,问题解决（3）,两个火车站相距100km，某天下午2点，两个火车头相向开出。一个火车的速度为60km/h，另一个火车的速度为40km/h，当火车头开始行走时，一只鸟突然出现在第一个火车头前面而向第二个火车头飞去，当鸟到达
2、第二个火车头时，它又立即以原来的速度向第一个火车头飞去，鸟以80km/h的速度在两个火车头之间来回飞。问：在两火车头相遇时鸟飞了多少公里？,4,第十章 思维和问题解决,思维研究的两种方法 思维和问题解决研究中的各种变量 问题解决的早期研究 问题解决的计算机模拟 思维的计算机模拟的局限性 推理 决策,5,一、思维研究的两种方法,Historically, there have been two primary approaches to the study of problem solving that have different emphases. Both have been very i
3、nfluential on the study of thinking and the study of learning. The two approaches represent a bottom-up (data-driven) analysis and top-down (conceptually driven) analysis analogous to the ways of examining perception. Thorndikes Trial-and-Error Learning Insight in Khlers Chimpanzees,6,Thorndikes Tri
4、al-and-Error Learning (1),In some interesting early experiments, Thorndike (1898) studied problem solving in cats. He placed them in specially constructed puzzle boxes with food placed outside. The cats problem was how to escape from the box and obtain the food. In some cases, the appropriate soluti
5、on was simply clawing down a rope, but sometimes there were as many as three different solutions the cat could use. Thorndike observed the the cats performance on successive trials in the puzzle box and measured the amount of time it took them to escape on each trial. On the first trial, the cat wou
6、ld try a variety of strategies in attempting to escape the box and would strike out in an undirected manner at nearby objects. Eventually, the cat would claw at the rope that released it from the cage. It seemed completely accidental, at lease at first. On successive occasions, though, the cats bega
7、n to escape from the box more quickly and systematically each time. Nonetheless, the guiding principle that seemed to govern the cats solution attempts was one of trial-and-error learning.,7,Thorndikes Trial-and-Error Learning (2),In his analysis of trial-and-error learning, Thorndike was particular
8、ly concerned with success. It seemed obvious that the success of a correct movement caused it to be impressed or learned. The effect of the movement was to lead to success. These early experiments led to the law of effect and the concept of reinforcement.,8,Insight in Khlers Chimpanzees (1),Wolfgang
9、 Khler, a German psychologist, conducted research on the problem-solving capacities of chimpanzees. Many of the problems he used could not be solved in a simple, direct way, as could Thorndikes puzzle-box problem, in which the cat merely had to claw at a rope. Instead, solutions required a more roun
10、dabout approach. Khler discussed his research in a book published in German in 1921 and translated into English as The Mentality of Apes (1927).,9,Insight in Khlers Chimpanzees (2),In one problem, Khler dangled a banana out of reach of the chimpanzees. It was too far above them for them to reach it,
11、 even with the aid of a stick placed within their enclosure. A more indirect solution to the problem was required. Khler describes in detail attempts of the chimps to obtain the banana. Usually, they would first try out various direct strategies of obtaining it, like reaching and poking at it with t
12、he stick. Failing with these methods, they would then seem to engage in various random acts or often apparently give up on the problem altogether. Somewhat later, however, a chimp would suddenly implement the appropriate solution to the problem. The solution in this case was to stack some crated tha
13、t were in the enclosure on top of one another and then climb up them to reach the banana.,10,Insight in Khlers Chimpanzees (3),Khler emphasized the importance of insight in solving the problem. After a period of random activity or no activity at all, the chimp suddenly conceived of the boxed as rela
14、ted to the problem. Once this insight was achieved, implementing the solution was quite simple. Khlers top-down approach to problem solving emphasized its structured, planned, and conceptual nature, rather than its trial-and-error aspect. Khler was a member of the Gestalt school of psychology, which
15、 in general was opposed to the more elementary type of analysis of behaviorism that grew, in part, from work such as Thorndikes.,11,二、思维研究中的各种变量（1）,Dependent Variable There are three primary ways to measure the process of problem solving. The first and most obvious thing to measure is the number or
16、proportion of subjects in different conditions that are able to solve the problem within a time limit. The second measure of performance in solving the problem: latency, or the time taken to solve the problem. A third measure that can be used in some problem-solving situations where more than one solution is possible is the quality of the solution. It must be possible to rank the solutions on an ordinal scale; in other words, it must be possible to order them from best to
