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1、第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of languageArbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms oflinguistic signsbear no natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of
2、structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its u
3、sers.Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3. Functions of languageInformative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and
4、maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare). Emotive/Expressive(情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Phatic communion(
5、寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (Health, weather)Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about la
6、nguage itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined asthe scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)describe and analyze linguistic facts or the la
7、nguage people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)lay down rules for“correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar:“never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study(共时)description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)Diachronic study (
8、历时)description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1What is Syntax（句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the waysdifferent constituentsare combined to formsentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2Four Approaches :Thetraditionalapproach
9、传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、Thestructuralapproach结构语言观、Thegenerativeapproach、Thefunctionalapproach功能语言观3The traditional grammar regards sentences asa sequence of words, so it pays great attention to the study ofwords, such as the classificat
10、ion of words in terms ofparts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms ofsubject, predicate, etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5The termCategory范畴in some ap
11、proaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）;the categories of
12、the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6Numberis mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Genderis also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gende
13、r distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Caseis used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格,
14、 and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realized in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态:the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there ar
15、e only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoi
16、ng or completed.Perfective（完成体）and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态:describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12.Concordand governmentConcord(一致关系)refers toagreementbetween words, especially between averband thesubjectof a sentence.Government(支配关系
