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1、Pedagogical Content Knowing:An Integrative Model for Teacher PreparationKathryn E Cochran, University of Northern Cobrado James A* DeRuiter, University of Northern Cobrado Richard A* King, University of Northern CobradoDownloaded from at SEIR on January 6, 2015journal of Teacher Education, Septembe
2、r-October 1993, Vol. 44, No. 4265Those who understand, teach.Lee Shulman (1986, p. 14)In its early history teacher education emphasized teacher knowledge of subject matter (Shulman, 1986). For the past few decades teacher education researchers have focused on the effectiveness of general pedagogical
3、 methods such as teach- ers use of questions, the design of assignments and curricula, and the assessment of student performance independent of subject matter (Ball & McDiarmid, 1990). This work has revealed that instructional methods such as wait time, preinstructional strategies, the use of concre
4、te examples and manipulatives, and formative testing improve student achievement (see, e.g” Hofwolt, no date). Researchers have generally studied these methods without regard for specific content material; when they have included content in the research, they have used it primarily as a control vari
5、able rather than a topic of specific interest.Scholars (e.g” Ball & McDiarmid, 1990; Hashweh, 1987) and reform initiatives (e.g”Holmes Group, 1986; Renaissance Group, 1989) now recognize the importance of teachers subject matter knowledge as a function of research evidence, and that both their subje
6、ct matter knowledge and pedagogical knowledge are crucial to good teaching and student understanding (Buchmann, 1982, 1984; Doyle, 1986; Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1987; Reynolds, 1992; Tobin &Garnett, 1988). In addition to content and pedagogical knowledge, Shulman (1986, 1987, 1988) has suggested t
7、hat teaching expertise should be described and evaluated in terms of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK).In this paper we describe and propose a modification of Shulmans concept of PCK based on an explicit constructivist view of teaching and learning processes. In this expanded version of PCK, we pl
8、ace increased emphasis on knowing and understanding as active processes and on the simultaneous development of all aspects of knowing how to teach. In our version of PCK we emphasize the importance of teachers knowing about the learning of their students and the environmental context in which learni
9、ng and teaching occur. We apply our model of pedagogical content knowing (PCKg) to teacher education and generate hypotheses for future applied and theoretical research.Pedagogical Content KnowledgeA major focus of the Stanford Knowledge Growth in Teaching Project of Shulman and his colleagues and s
10、tudents (e.g, Grossman, Wilson, & Shulman, 1989; Gudmundsdottir, 1987a, 1987b; Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987; Marks, 1990), PCK represents a new, broader perspective in our understanding of teaching and learning. A recent special issue of the Journal of Teacher Education (Ashton, 1990) focused on t
11、his theme.PCK differentiates expert teachers in a subject area from subject area experts. PCK concerns the manner in which teachers relate their subject matter knowledge (what they know about what they teach) to their pedagogical knowledge (what they know about teaching) and how subject matter knowl
12、edge is a part of the process of pedagogical reasoning. For Shulman (1986), PCK embodies the aspects of content most germane to its teachability. Within the category of pedagogical content knowledge I include, for the most regularly taught topics in ones subject area, the most useful forms of repres
13、entation of those ideas, the most powerful analogiesf illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrationsin a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others . It also includes an understanding of what makes the learning of specific concepts eas
14、y or difficult: the conceptions and preconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning. (P.9)The transformation of subject matter for teaching (Shulman, 1986) occurs as the teacher critically reflects on and interprets the subject matter; finds multiple wa
15、ys to represent the information as analogies, metaphors, examples, problems, demonstrations, and classroom activities; adapts the material to students abilities, gender, prior knowledge, and preconceptions (those preinstructional， informal, or nontraditional ideas students bring to the learning sett
16、ing); and finally tailors the material to those specific students to whom the information will be taught. Gudmundsdottir (1987a, b) described this transformation process as a continual restructuring of subject matter knowledge for the purpose of teaching; Buchmann (1984) discussed the notion that good teachers must maintain a fluid control or flexible understanding (p. 21) of their subject knowledge (i.e., they must be
