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1、衔接与连贯 (cohesion and coherence ),衔接 语篇的有形网络 连贯 语篇的无形网络,Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.,(1) Gettysburg Address (Abraham Lincoln),Now we are engaged in a grea
2、t civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of the field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is alto
3、gether fitting and proper that we should do this.,But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate we can not consecrate we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long
4、 remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced.,It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from th
5、ese honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom and that government of the people, by the people, for
6、 the people, shall not perish from the earth.,语篇的衔接手段,众所周知，大树是通过许许多多的树叉把大大小小的枝条同树干连接起来形成一个完美的整体。其实语篇就好比是一棵大树一个条理清晰，上下连贯（语篇特征）的整体，那么语篇是靠什么形成的呢？回答是靠衔接手段。,衔接,“衔接”这一概念是Halliday于1962年首次提出的。后来在他与Hasan合著的Cohesion in English一书中把衔接定义为“存在于篇章内部，使之成为语篇的意义关系”（Halliday& Hasan, 1976:4）。他们认为，衔接是产生语篇的必要（尽管不足）的条件（197
7、6：298-299）。在他们看来，有了衔接不一定产生语篇，但是如果没有衔接则一定不会产生语篇。,他们系统地将衔接分为五大类：照应（reference）、替代（substitution）、省略（ellipsis）、连接（conjunction）及词汇衔接（lexical cohesion）。 其中前三类属于语法手段，第四类属于逻辑手段，最后一类属于词汇衔接手段。,照应是一些起信号作用的词项。它们不能像大多数词项那样本身可作出语义理解，而只能通过照应别的词项来说明信息（Halliday & Hasan, 1976:31）。照应分为外照应（exophora）和内照应（endophora）。内照应又可
8、分为下照应（或称后照应）（anaphora）和上照应（或称前照应）（cataphora）。,外照应指独立于上下文之外的词项。内照应指意义依赖于上下文的词项。下照应（后照应）指意义依赖于前述词项的词项、上照应（前照应）指意义依赖于后述词项的词项。,Reference,The snail is considered a great delicacy. As the child grows, he learns to be independent. It never should have happened. She went out and left the door open.,替代指用一个词项
9、去代替另一个或几个词项，是词项之间的一种代替关系。英语中常用的替代词one(s), do, same。Halliday和Hasan将其分为名词性替代、动词性替代和从句性替代。由于前述句子或上下文使得意义明确而省去句子的一部分称作为省略。它可以视为“零替代”（Halliday & Hasan, 1976:142），省去一些上下文可使之意义明确的成分。,Substitution,Compare the new dictionary with the old one(s). We rent a house, but they own one. A: Black coffee, please. B:
10、The same for me. They do not buy drinks at the supermarket, but we do. I think so.,Ellipsis,He prefers Dutch cheese and I prefer Danish. -Do you understand? -I tried to. -You havent told him yet. -Not yet.,连接是句际间意义相互联系的一种衔接手段，常用的有递进、转折、因果、时间。词义衔接是实现衔接的又一手段。它是通过词义的选择来实现的。,Conjunction,I told him years
11、 ago, but he wont listen. He was drowned because he fell off the pier. With the following conjunctions in sentences or passages:,英语逻辑关系表示法,1. 先后或列举：first, second; in the second place; nest/then; for one thingfor another; furthermore/moreover/in addition/ besides;finally/last; and等。 2. 因果：consequentl
12、y/ as a result/ hence/ accordingly/ thus/so/therefore; because/since/for等。 3.特例或举例：in particular; specifically; for instance/ for example; that is /namely等。,4.转折： But/however/yet/nevertheless; on the contrary; on the other hand; neithernor等。 5.引出结论：in conclusion/finally/all in all/ to sum up；evident
13、ly/ clearly/ actually; of course等。 6. 表示频率：frequently/often; occasionally/ now and then; day after day; again and again等。,7. 表示阶段：during; briefly; for a long time; for many years等。 8. 表某一时刻：then/ at that time/ in those days; last Sunday; next Christmas; in 2005; at the beginning go Sep; at six ocloc
14、k; two months ago等。,9. 表示开端：at first/ in the beginning; before then; in the preceding weeks等。 10. 表示其间：in the meantime/ while this was going on/ meanwhile/ as it was happening/ at the same time/ simultaneously等。 11. 表示结束：eventually/ finally/ at last/ in the end 等。,词义衔接主要可划分为重复、同义词、反义词、局部词、上座标词、下义词和搭
15、配。,Lexical cohesion,There are more than 26,000 patients on the national waiting list for transplants. About 2,000 patients are dying annually while waiting for transplants, mostly patients waiting for hearts, kidneys and livers, for the shortage of organs.,Organ Retrieval Methods Spark Debate Doctor
16、s try to expand donor pool by preserving body parts patients whose hearts and lungs fail.,Exercise,Why Historians Disagree,Why Historians Disagree,1 Most students are usually introduced to the study of history by way of a fat textbook and become quickly immersed in a vast sea of names, dates, events and statistics. The students skills are then tested by examinations that require them to show how much the data they remember: the more they remember, the high
