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1、1,消费者行为理论,Consumer theory,2,消费者行为最优化原则,Consumers are assumed to choose the best bundle of goods they can afford.,3,消费者行为,消费者进行消费的目的是什么？ 消费者消费选择的特点（preference）？ 消费者进行消费受到什么条件的约束（afford)? 在主客观因素的影响下消费者如何进行选择？,4,Chapter Two,Budgetary and Other Constraints on Choice 预算约束,5,outline,预算约束 预算约束有什么特点 影响预算约束的
2、因素 计价物 政府的税收、补贴和配给政策如何影响预算约束,6,Consumption Choice Sets,What constrains consumption choice? Budgetary, time and other resource limitations.,7,Budget Constraints,A consumption bundle containing x1 ，x2 xn X (x1, x2, , xn).Commodity prices are p1, p2, , pn.,8,Budget Constraints,Q: When is a consumption
3、bundle (x1, , xn) affordable at given prices p1, , pn?,9,Budget Constraints,A: When p1x1 + + pnxn m where m is the consumers (disposable) income.,10,Budget Constraints,The bundles that are only just affordable form the consumers budget constraint. This is the set (x1,xn) | x1 0, , xn 0 and p1x1 + +
4、pnxn = m .,11,Budget Constraints,The consumers budget set (预算集）is the set of all affordable bundles; B(p1, , pn, m) = (x1, , xn) | x1 0, , xn 0 and p1x1 + + pnxn m The budget constraint is the upper boundary of the budget set.,12,Budget Set and Constraint for Two Commodities,x2,x1,Budget constraint
5、is p1x1 + p2x2 = m.,m /p1,m /p2,13,Budget Set and Constraint for Two Commodities,x2,x1,Budget constraint is p1x1 + p2x2 = m.,m /p2,m /p1,14,Budget Set and Constraint for Two Commodities,x2,x1,Budget constraint is p1x1 + p2x2 = m.,m /p1,Just affordable,m /p2,15,Budget Set and Constraint for Two Commo
6、dities,x2,x1,Budget constraint is p1x1 + p2x2 = m.,m /p1,Just affordable,Not affordable,m /p2,16,Budget Set and Constraint for Two Commodities,x2,x1,Budget constraint is p1x1 + p2x2 = m.,m /p1,Affordable,Just affordable,Not affordable,m /p2,17,Budget Set and Constraint for Two Commodities,x2,x1,p1x1
7、 + p2x2 = m isx2 = -(p1/p2)x1 + m/p2so slope is -p1/p2.,m /p1,Budget Set,m /p2,18,Budget Constraints,x2,x1,+1,-p1/p2,Opp. cost of an extra unit of commodity 1 is p1/p2 units foregone of commodity 2.,19,Budget Constraints,x2,x1,Opp. cost of an extra unit of commodity 1 is p1/p2 units foregone of comm
8、odity 2. And the opp. cost of an extra unit of commodity 2 is p2/p1 units foregone of commodity 1.,-p2/p1,+1,20,预算集特点,在价格、收入给定的条件下，要增加1单位x1的消费就必须减少p1/p2的消费。 因此它还表示两种商品之间的市场替代比率或者说是相互之间的机会成本。,21,影响预算集的因素： Income and Price,22,Higher income gives more choice,Original budget set,New affordable consumpti
9、on choices,x2,x1,Original and new budget constraints are parallel (same slope).,23,How do the budget set and budget constraint change as income m decreases?,Original budget set,x2,x1,24,How do the budget set and budget constraint change as income m decreases?,x2,x1,New, smaller budget set,Consumptio
10、n bundles that are no longer affordable.,Old and new constraints are parallel.,25,Budget Constraints - Price Changes,What happens if just one price decreases? Suppose p1 decreases.,26,How do the budget set and budget constraint change as p1 decreases from p1 to p1”?,Original budget set,x2,x1,m/p2,m/
11、p1,m/p1”,-p1/p2,27,How do the budget set and budget constraint change as p1 decreases from p1 to p1”?,Original budget set,x2,x1,m/p2,m/p1,m/p1”,New affordable choices,-p1/p2,28,How do the budget set and budget constraint change as p1 decreases from p1 to p1”?,Original budget set,x2,x1,m/p2,m/p1,m/p1
12、”,New affordable choices,Budget constraintpivots; slope flattensfrom -p1/p2 to-p1”/p2,-p1/p2,-p1”/p2,29,30,Relative Prices（计价物）,The budget line p1x1 + p2x2 = m Can be equivalently expressed asp1/p2 x1 + x2 = m/p2 p2=1: numeraire price(基准价格), it defines all prices relative to p2 x2 is composite good,
13、 which is measured in dollars to be spent on goods other than good 1.,31,政府政策如何影响消费者预算约束？,32,Uniform Ad Valorem Sales Taxes,An ad valorem sales tax levied at a rate of t increases all prices by tp from p to (1+t)p.,33,Uniform Ad Valorem Sales Taxes,A uniform sales tax levied at rate t changes the co
14、nstraint from p1x1 + p2x2 = m to (1+t)p1x1 + (1+t)p2x2 = m,34,Uniform Ad Valorem Sales Taxes,A uniform sales tax levied at rate t changes the constraint from p1x1 + p2x2 = m to (1+t)p1x1 + (1+t)p2x2 = m i.e. p1x1 + p2x2 = m/(1+t).,35,Uniform Ad Valorem Sales Taxes,x2,x1,p1x1 + p2x2 = m,36,Uniform Ad
15、 Valorem Sales Taxes,x2,x1,p1x1 + p2x2 = m,p1x1 + p2x2 = m/(1+t),37,Uniform Ad Valorem Sales Taxes,x2,x1,Equivalent income loss is,38,Uniform Ad Valorem Sales Taxes,x2,x1,A uniform ad valorem sales tax levied at rate t is equivalent to an income tax levied at rate,39,The Food Stamp Program,Food stamps are coupons that can be legally exchanged only for food.,40,The Food Stamp Program,
