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1、衔接,“衔接”这一概念是Halliday于1962年首次提出的。后来在他与Hasan合著的Cohesionin English一书中把衔接定义为“存在于篇章内部，使之成为语篇的意义关系。他们认为，衔接是产生语篇的必要的条件在他们看来，有了衔接不一定产生语篇，但是如果没有衔接则一定不会产生语篇。,他们系统地将衔接分为五大类：照应（reference）、替代（substitution）、省略（ellipsis）、连接（conjunction）及词汇衔接（lexical cohesion）。其中前三类属于语法手段，第四类属于逻辑手段，最后一类属于词汇衔接手段。,语法衔接1. 指代referencep
2、ersonal referencedemonstrative referencecomparative references,Personal reference,Personal reference is reference by means of function in situation. The following are personal references: Masculine: he/him, his Feminine: she/her, hers Neuter: it/its Generalized human: they/them/theirs/their,Examples
3、,(1) A: How old is your son? B: He is seven. (2) A: How old is your son? B: She is playing in the garden. (3) A:Claire and Kent climbed Mt. McKinley last summer. B: She photographed the peak, and he surveyed it.,Demonstrative reference,Demonstrative reference is a reference by means of location. E.g
4、. Leave that there and come here.These are my favorites and those are my favorites too.,Comparative references,Comparative references is reference by mean s of comparison. The following are comparative references:as ,such,so,likewise,similarly,otherwise,else,differently,bigger,more ,less,better,Exam
5、ples,Child A: The cat runs real fast. Child B: No, the lion runs much faster. Child A: The cat is faster, the lion doesnt even run. Child B: No, the lion is the fastest. My dad said this. This is the case of comparative reference.,2. 替代substitutionThis biscuits are stale. Get some fresh ones.(名词性替代）
6、 “ if you have seen them so often, of course you know what theyre like.” “I believe so,” Alice replied thoughtfully.（分句性替代）,3. 省略ellipsis (zero substitution)“how many hours a day did you do lessons? said Alice.” I did that ten hours the first day,” said Tom.（分句性省略）,逻辑衔接,4. 连接conjunction A. 通过标点符号衔接
7、I came, I saw , I conquered.( Julius Ceaser) The sun is growing warm, frogs are waking in the marshes, planting time will be soon here. B. 通过连接词衔接,词汇衔接lexis,（1）重复(repetition) 重复主要指语篇中单词和词组的重复，词汇重复的使用可以使语篇连贯，给读者留下深刻的印象，从而达到突出主题的目的。如： I want a wife who will take care of my physical needs, I want a wif
8、e who will keep my house clean, a wife who will pick up after me, I want a wife who will keep my clothes clean, ironed, mended, replaced when need to beI want a wife who will plan the menusI want a wife who will care for me when Im sick 这篇摘自美国女作家Judy Syfers的I Want a Wife的文中，短短700词左右的文章，wife/wifes就用了
9、50多次；“I want a wife”这个句式出现了30多次。使用重复的手段列举了“妻子”的沉重负担，这样反复使用同一词汇wife/wifes和句子I want a wife，不但不显得累赘，反而使作者的写作目的表达得淋漓尽致，文章的主题一目了然。,（2）同义/反义(synonym/antonym) 同义性指具有同样意义或相近意义的不同词项之间的接应关系，这个词的意义可以指人、物、过程或性质。反义性的功能是在两个词项之间可以期待一种意义有区别的对比关系。如： 1. If you want to stay happily married, always be prepared to compr
10、omise. When you have different opinions about something, you each give way a little. 2.Balancing work and school was difficult. “I was staying up late studying, and going to work early every morning.” 例1中的compromise和give way是一对同义词，这样既丰富了语篇的表现力，又使文章增色不少。例2中的staying up late和going to work early是一对反义词，强
11、调两种不同的动作，语篇意思明确，表现生动。同义词和反义词的使用突出了语义的连贯，使语言更加丰富多彩。,（3）上下义(hyponomy) 上义词是相对于下义词而言的。上义词的含义一般概括而抽象，下义词则表示比较具体的含义。 1.Top students allow no interruptions of their study time. Once the books are open, phone calls go unanswered, TV unwatched and newspapers unread. 在此句中，interruptions在这一特定语境中可看作上义词，而phone ca
12、lls、TV和newspapers则为三个下义词，表示interruptions的具体含义。上义词和下义词的使用使文章叙述更有条理性，类属关系分明，文脉清晰。,（4）搭配(collocation) 搭配指不同的词汇在意义上是有联系的，它们往往会出现在同一语篇中，如例中的ice-cream store和dessert，这些语义上有联系的词汇也可以起到衔接语篇的作用。 1.My five-year-old son and I stopped at our local ice-cream store to get dessert for his birthday party.,连贯(coherenc
13、e),：是整个语篇一致性的抽象特征。 词汇衔接 句子衔接 段落衔接,1、词汇衔接：连接词、同义词、反义词、上、下义词、同一语义场等,连接词（conjunction)A student acquires knowledge mainly from the textbook and in class. As a result,（结果）when he graduates from school he can do nothing. For （原因）everything is different from what teachers told him. He may even be disappoin
14、ted and （并列）frustrated. In the end,（总结） he may be afraid to face the real world.,同义词(synonym)The farm was owned by two brothers. They employed a few farm hands, but no one was willing to work long. Every time a worker gave up his job, he told the same story. Farm laborers said that 反义词(antonym) Fail
15、ure is the mother of success.上 下义词(hyponymy) It has never been explained why university students seem to enjoy practical jokes more than anyone else. Students specialize in a particular type of practical joke: hoax. Inviting the fire brigade to put out a nonexistent fire is a crude form of deception
16、. Students often create amusing situations which are funny to everyone except the victim.,同一语义场(semantic field)Small boats loaded with wares sped to the great liner as she was entering the harbor. Before she had anchored, the men from the boats had climbed on board and the decks were soon covered wi
17、th colorful but I decided not to buy anything until I had disembarked.,综合运用Walters goal in life was to become a successful surgeon. First, though, he had to get through high school, so he concentrated all his efforts on his studies -in particular, biology, chemistry and math. Because he worked const
18、antly on these subjects, Walter became proficient in them; however, Walter forgot that he needed to master other subjects besides those he had chosen, as a result, during his junior year of high school, Walter failed both English and Latin. Consequently, he had to repeat these subjects and he was almost unable to graduate on schedule. Finally, on June 6, Walter achieved the first step toward realizing his goal.,
