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1、环境商品化理论 福利经济理论 外部性理论 物质平衡理论 环境影响评价 环境经济政策,分论二: 环境经济,环境商品化理论,公共物品 公共物品：不具备明确的产权特征，消费时不具备竞争性或排他性的物品 消费的无竞争性：A对X的消费不会减少或干扰B对X的消费 消费的无排他性：不能阻止任何人免费享受某物品的消费,环境商品化理论,公地悲剧（Tragedy of the commons）问题 It is the title of an influential article written by Garrett Hardin, published in Science in 1968 It describe
2、s a dilemma in which multiple individuals acting independently in their own self-interest can ultimately destroy a shared resource even where it is clear that it is not in anyones long term interest for this to happen,环境商品化理论,Central to Hardins article is a metaphor of herders sharing a common parce
3、l of land (the commons) on which they are all entitled to let their cows graze In Hardins view it is in each herders interest to put as many cows as possible onto the land even if the commons is damaged as a result,环境商品化理论,The herder receives all the benefits from the additional cows but the damage
4、to the commons is shared by the entire group If all herders make this individually rational decision, however, the commons is destroyed and all herders suffer The article has been interpreted either as an argument for the privatization of community assets or for increased government regulation,环境商品化
5、理论,公地悲剧：共有资源，无竞争性或无排他性，导致所谓的“公地悲剧” 解决途径：一个所有者管理或政府所有/管制,环境商品化理论,免费搭车难题（Free rider problem） In economics，free riders are those who consume more than their fair share of a resource，or shoulder less than a fair share of the costs of its production The free rider problem is the question of how to preven
6、t free riding from taking place, or at least limit its negative effects,环境商品化理论,Because the notion of fairness is controversial，free riding is usually only considered to be an economic problem when it leads to the non-production or under-production of a public good，and thus to Pareto inefficiency，or
7、 when it leads to the excessive use of a common property resource,环境商品化理论,免费搭车：公共物品无排他性，使得每个人都能消费而不付费，导致“搭便车”问题，私人不提供这种公共物品 解决办法：政府介入，通过税收来提供公共物品或通过谈判来解决问题,环境商品化理论,集体（合）行动（Collective action）的逻辑 It is commonly referred to as Public Choice The economic theory of collective action is concerned with the
8、 provision of public goods (and other collective consumption) through the collaboration of two or more individuals, and the impact of externalities on group behavior,环境商品化理论,Olsons theory explores the market failures where individual consumer rationality and firms profit-seeking do not lead to effic
9、ient provision of the public goods, i.e. where another level of provision would provide a higher utility at a lower cost However, the theory is not necessarily a challenge to the invisible hand principle of Adam Smith,环境商品化理论,It only limits the domain in which that principle applies: for purely priv
10、ate goods in ideal competitive markets, the pursuit of self-interest is still efficient Besides economics, the theory has found many applications in political science, sociology, anthropology and environmentalism,环境商品化理论,The foundational work in collective action in the economic sense was Ronald Coa
11、ses, The Nature of the Firm (1937，厂商的性质), which introduced the concept of transaction costs to explain the size of firms, and The Problem of Social Cost (1960，社会成本问题) Moreover Mancur Olsons 1965 book The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups is also of importance,环境商品化理论,
12、个人理性的追求是经济活动的动力，但个人理性往往导致集体非理性 个人、地方、国家在经济活动中本位利益的追求可能与资源、环境、生产安全等目标相悖 纯粹的市场效率追求会导致市场失灵，而政府在解决市场失灵时如果无法有效约束本位利益追求与政绩偏好，就会出现政府失灵,环境商品化理论,在双重失灵情况下，集体行动的逻辑必然导致资源、环境、生产安全等问题陷入困境 要在个体理性的效率追求、企业经济效益的驱动和官员政绩实现的交织中解决资源、环境、生产安全等问题，必须进行相应的制度设计与投资,环境商品化理论,环境商品化（ Commoditization of Nature ） 环境：公共物品，没有价格，免费取用，市场
13、失灵 规定价格或建立市场：通过竞争解决环境问题，并用效率标准判断解决效果 消费者剩余：支付意愿-实际支出，反映价值 通过研究支付意愿和消费者剩余，可以评估环境改善的经济价值或环境破坏的经济损失,环境商品化理论,福利经济（Welfare economics） 经济伦理学（Economic ethics） A methodological approach to assess resource allocations and establish criteria for government intervention,福利经济理论,Welfare analysis：a systematic met
14、hod of evaluating economic implications of alternative allocations It answers the following questions:Is a given resource allocation efficient?Who gains and who loses under various resource allocations? By how much? 目的：制订经济政策,福利经济理论,旧福利经济 以庇古（A C Pigou ）福利经济学思想为代表 福利：意识形态；广义（自由、安全、家庭和谐、友谊、精神愉快等）与狭义（
15、经济福利） 影响因素：国民收入总量、个人收入分配 方法：以基数效用（Cardinal utility）为基础 外部性理论：认为外部性是指边际社会净效用与边际私人净效用的差异/不一致,福利经济理论,新福利经济 20世纪30年代后形成的福利经济学 要点：认为社会福利改进是指社会成员的福利增长，但不能有其他社会成员的福利减少 创建了社会福利函数，指出帕累托（Pareto）最优是社会福利最大化的必要条件，收入分配的合理性是充分条件；提出了社会补偿原则 以序数效用（Cardinal utility）为基础,福利经济理论,福利经济学意义 经济学：关注产品的生产、分配、交换和消费，解决稀缺或数量不足问题，扩
16、大社会财富总量 随着社会财富总量的增加，人们逐渐发现社会分配不公、环境污染、劳动异化，人们的主观幸福、社会福利并没有得到提高 福利经济学作为新理论，研究不同经济状态下社会福利的增减变动，说明或评价现实经济政策或经济制度的合意性,福利经济理论,帕累托效率（Pareto efficiency） 有效/最优：指经济系统的一种状态，不可能通过资源重新配置，在其他人效用水平不下降的情况下，使任何个人的效用水平有所提高 无效/次优：指可能在其他人效用水平不下降的情况下，通过重新配置资源，使得一个或一些人效用水平有提高 帕累托改进：相应的资源重新配置，能够使至少一人受益同时不使其他人受损的政策改进,福利经济理论,帕累托效率局限 社会性：如果经济系统的一部分（如资本）按最优条件运行，而另一部分（如劳动力）未能按最优条件运行，则该经济系统是低效率的 任何能够使经济效率水平提高的改进都是可以接受的，以实现要素最佳组合（Optimal mix） 局限性：按照帕累托效率的标准，使至少一方受到损害的政策改进是不可取的,福利经济理论,补偿原则 在许多情况下，经济系统通过变革（实施项目或政策）会使一些人受益，而使另一些人受损 如果该变革使得一方的收益在补偿另一方所受损失之后还有剩余的话，潜在的福利是增加的，变革也可以进行，但需要确定补偿方案,
