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1、Where have all the utilities gone?,經濟成長與人們幸福或福祉感覺之調查結果，兩者之間的關係一直都是充滿爭議的。許多學者的研究顯示，二次大戰後至今許多工業國家的個人所得提升，在調查報告中並沒有出現應該相對增加的幸福感受度。,人們對於福祉的認知往往與其他事物相關。收入與快樂的關係，必須配合其他活動的變化一起研究。,讓快樂起變化的活動,工作品質休閒照顧與愛所得和所獲之間的滿足,工作品質,以下的討論出於 Demanding work: The paradox of job quality in the affluent economy, by Francis Gree
2、n, 2006, Princeton University Press. (不在指定閱讀教材中）,構成工作品質的內容,工作所需技術層次(skill)工作的辛苦程度(work effort)個人的自主程度 (personal discretion)穩定程度(security),skill,一般而言，隨著工業化，工作所需的技術呈兩極化。機械化與分工使得藍領工作去技術化，低階白領工作也有這樣的趨勢。另一方面，高階專業、經理、技術工作需要更複雜的技術。,在強調各種人應該擁有技術的社會中，比如德國，人們在這方面的工作品質比其他國家高。,Personal discretion,工作的自主性隨著科學管理日新
3、月異而降低，但是重視人的自主性的國家比如斯堪地那維亞國家，工作自主性都一直比別的工業化國家高。英國的工作自主性正在下降。,Work effort,工作的辛苦程度通常用工時的長短來衡量西北歐和美國朝向兩個不同方向發展，西北歐各國在過去二十年工時都大為縮短，如法國在1979至2002之間，每年工時降低311小時，美國、英國的工時都沒有明顯降低。,security,工作是否穩定是工作品質的重要指標之一，由於全球化的影響，工業化國家的藍領工作者受到企業關廠外移的影響，失業情形普遍，不易找到新工作。,Trades victims: In the shadow of prosperity Jan 18th
4、 2007 | GALAX, VIRGINIA From The Economist print editionHard truths about helping the losers from globalisation,休閒,工作過多、休閒過少,市場經濟中，經濟產出以數量計算（所得、利潤），如果人們以增加經濟產出的量作為衡量經濟生活成功的標準，人會傾向過度工作。,對經濟理性的批判,Andre Gorz在 From enough is enough to the more the better, 批判現代人雖然自稱理性，其實並不常思考追求所得（手段）的目的何在。所以他說，現代人事實上是不理性
5、，不思考手段與目標之間的關係。,經濟理性,Quantitative measure inherently admits of no principle of self-limitation. The category of the sufficient, and the category of too much are equally alien to the spirit of capitalism.,No quantity, when serving to measure a performance, can be too great; no enterprise can earn too
6、 much money nor any worker be too productive.,Economic rationality has never, therefore, in essence, be in the service of any determinate goal. Its object is the maximization of the type of efficiency that it knows how to measure arithmetically.,Earning and consuming more do not necessarily lead to
7、a better life, and that there can, therefore, be more important demands than wage demands.,休閒的重要,The defense of life lies in the demand for a reduction of working hours, the demand for the right to time for living.,Demand for wages and demand for leisure is equally important. But the demand for leis
8、ure is often neglected by workers themselves.,Wage demands are, in fact, the only demands which do not undermine the rationality of the economic system. They remain consonant with the principle that more is better, which the quantifying of values.,Conversely, the more constricting work is in its int
9、ensity and hours, the less workers are able to conceive of life as an end in itself, the source of all values; and the more as a result they are induced to regard it in economic terms.,A Tale by a shoe factory worker,“It was easy to find volunteers for Sundays as well. Im sure that there were times
10、when you could have asked them to work seven days out of seven for a whole year; .there were people who worked after hours as well, cash in hand , .”,continued,“You see, when you were working forty-eight hours a week, cash really became the thing you were afterA friend said to me, jokingly (but joke
11、s always have a serious, side): Me, when Im not working, I dont know what to do, Im bored stiff, Im better off at work. “,continued,“Your factory is your life, when youre at work, its kind of secure, you have nothing else to do, its all set up for you, you dont have to use your initiative Its real s
12、ecurity, you have no more responsibility, its almost like going back to childhood.”,Work disciplines and orders life, it protects individuals against the collapse of certainties and against the responsibility of taking charge of their own lives. Their lives are all mapped out. Work is a protective s
13、hell, Its all set up for you.,Questions about the meaning and goal of life are resolved in advance: since there is no room in the workers life for anything other than working for money, money is the only possible goal. Money symbolizes everything that the worker has not, is not, and cannot be becaus
14、e of the constraints of work.,照顧,消失的照顧,由未支薪的家庭成員所生產的某部分價值消失了，消失最快的部分是照顧帶來的效用。這些效用中有一部份已經完全不被再生產，或者在帶給家庭極大壓力（雙薪家庭）的情形下繼續被生產著。,主流經濟學的缺席,無酬照顧乃由具有利他主義的家庭成員提供，主流經濟學只分析基於自利而在市場上進行交換的行為。,亞當斯密的晚餐,父權體制不僅僅只是賦予男性特權，還保障了照顧的供應無虞匱乏。_ Nancy Foblre,女性主義經濟學,女性主義經濟學關心女性傳統上所從事的工作如何造成她們的經濟地位低落，其中，大多由女性所從事的無酬家務工作與照顧工作，是
15、她們經濟地位低落的重要面向。,照顧的供應不足,女性主義經濟學不但關心照顧工作的分工不均，並關心當代工業社會照顧的供應所出現的量與質的問題，直接影響人的福祉，尤其是老弱小孩的福祉。,女性主義對照顧經濟的主張,家庭：家務與照顧的性別分工應該更加平等市場：照顧工作市場的薪水應該提高政府：政府應該直接提供老弱小孩的照顧資源，也應該規範企業使得員工有請假照顧家庭的權利。,消費,慾望無窮,工作所得原本是為了生活的消費（有所獲），但是消費活動在當代已經遠遠超出維生所需，隨著消費需求的不斷提升，人們已經無法感受夠用就好。,地位財的追逐,消費匱乏感的重要面向之一是赫許(Fred Hirsch)稱之為地位財的重要
16、性日漸增加。,地位財（positional goods or status goods）是用來做各種炫耀性消費的物品（包括服務），此時物品除了具有該物品本身具有的功用價值之外，同時提供了一種地位象徵，也就是提供了聲望價值。（進住某某豪宅）,炫耀性消費,Thorstein Veblen 研究美國早期工業社會中新興的富人階級，分析他們的消費方式。他們看到這些人極力模仿歐洲上層階級的生活風格，他們喜歡用消費來展示自己剛到手的財富，這種消費就是他們所稱的炫耀性消費（conspicuous consumption）,在追求地位優勢的過程中，我們很難獲得完全的滿足，因為我們總是會被持續提醒著，還有人正享受著把更多人排除在外的地位財。,物以稀為貴,位置財不像一般消費品可以大量生產，降低單位售價，位置財就是一種為了只能讓少數人消費而限量生產的物品。當中產階級競相追逐得到位置財的時候，該社會又會出現更新更昂貴的位置財以保留給少數消費得起的人 。,屈居人下，也稱豪宅？,
