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1、Review Questions,1. What are the main functions of language? 2. What is the main difference between prescriptive study and descriptive study? 3. What is the difference between langue and parole? 4. What is the main difference between competence and performance? 5. What is the main difference between
2、 langue and parole?,1.9.4 Competence and performance,Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language (语言能力) Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations (语言运用),Chomsky,Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological),Differences between competence and
3、 performance,A speakers performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.,Saussure Vs. Chomsky,Chomskys compe
4、tence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussures langue-parole distinction.,Chapter Two Speech Sounds,Phonetics (语音学) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages
5、.,What is Phonetics?,Branches of Phonetics,A three-step process of speech sounds:,Articulatory phonetics (发音语言学): the study of the production of speech sounds; Acoustic phonetics (声学语言学): the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech; Auditory phonetics (听觉语言学): the study of
6、the perception of speech sounds.,Phonetics Phonology,1. Phonetics: speech sounds It is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. 2. Phonology: sound systems It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language for
7、m patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.,Vs,Main contents in Chapter 2,Speech sounds,Sound systems,Speech organs Descriptions of English consonants and vowels,Click to add Title,Phoneme, phone, allophone Phonological processes,Sounds,Phonetics,Phonology
8、,2.1 How speech sounds are made?,Preview questions,1. What are the three cavities of the vocal tract? 2. What is the definition of IPA?,2.1.1 Organs of speech,A. The pharyngeal cavity: 13 windpipe, 12 glottis/vocal cords, 11 pharyngeal cavity B. The oral cavity: 1/2 lips, 3/4 teeth, 5 teeth ridge(al
9、veolus), 6 hard palate,7 soft palate (velum), 14 uvula, 8 tip of tongue, 9 blade of tongue, 10 back of tongue C. Nasal cavity: 15,咽腔,14,15,2.1.2 The IPA,International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Associati
10、on since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 2005.,2.2 Consonants and vowels,Preview questions: 1. What are consonants and vowels? 2. What is the major differenc
11、e between consonants and vowels? 3. In what ways can we describe consonants and vowels respectively?,Classification of speech sounds,1. Consonants: are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. 声道紧闭或声道变窄的
12、程度达到气流无法排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦。2. Vowels: By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.,The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of the airstream. All the English vowels are typically voiced
13、 (voicing).,2.2.1 Descriptions of consonants,1. In terms of manner of articulation: Ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; (c) they may sim
14、ply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. A. stops/plosives (爆破音) B. nasals (鼻音) C. fricatives (摩擦音) D. approximant (近音) E. lateral (边音) F. affricates (塞擦音),2. In terms of place of articulation: The point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant:,De
15、scription of consonants,Description of consonants,3. In terms of the state of the vocal cords: A. voiced: consonants produced when the vocal cords are closed, and the air-stream causes them to vibrate again each other. B. voiceless: consonants produced when vocal cords are apart, and air passes thro
16、ugh easily.,Position of the vocal folds:,voiceless (清音),Position of the vocal folds,voiced (initial & the widest aperture) (浊音),Position of the vocal folds,glottal stop (喉塞音 button /),2.2.2 Vowels,Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. 基本元音通过国际音标表中的元音图来表示，是一套人为确定的、固定不变的元音音质，为实际语音中的元音描写提供一个参照的框架。,
