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1、语言学练习解析,207-212,辅音分类英语辅音可以按照发音方式（manner of articulation）和发音部位（place of articulation）进行分类。发音方式指发音器官之间的关系和气流通过声道某一部位的方式；发音部位指声道中气流受阻碍的地方。,根据发音方式划分,爆破音（stop）:气流完全受阻后突然释放而形成的音，包括pb,td,kg。 摩擦音（fricative）:气流在声道的某一位置产生摩擦而产生的音，包括fvszh 破擦音（affricate):气流在完全受阻后以摩擦音的方式释放的单独辅音，包括td 流音（liquid）:气流从口腔上部与舌头的一部分（舌尖或舌
2、侧）之间的缝隙通过产生的音，包括lr。,滑音（glide）:两个发音器官接近，但是声道的狭窄程度不足以产生摩擦的气流，也叫半元音（semi-vowel），包括jw。 鼻音（nasal）:气流由鼻腔通过发出的声音，包括mn,根据发音部位划分,双唇音（bilabial）:气流阻碍由双唇产生，包括pbmw 齿音（dental）:舌尖与上齿接触形成阻碍，包括 唇齿音（labiodental）:下唇与上齿接触形成阻碍，包括fv 齿龈音（alveolar）:舌尖与上齿龈之间形成阻碍，包括tdsznlr 后齿龈音（postalveolar）:舌尖与后齿龈之间形成阻碍，包括 td,腭音（palatal）:舌头
3、前部与硬腭之间形成阻碍，包括j 软腭音（velar）:舌头后部与软腭之间形成阻碍，包括kg 声门音（glottal）:声带暂时合拢产生的声音，包括h,元音按照舌头的位置和嘴唇的形状分类,根据舌头的哪个位置最高，英语的元音可以分为前元音、中元音和后元音 前元音（front vowels）:i:ie 中元音（central vowels）: 后元音（back vowels）:u:u: 此外，英语中所有的前元音和中元音都是非圆唇音（unrounded vowels），除:之外的后元音都是圆唇音(rounded vowels),215,phonemes (音位）：a smallest unit of
4、sound in a language, which can distinguish two words.音位是语言中能够区别意义的最小单位，它不是一个特定的语音，而是一组语音特征的抽象集合体。,Minimal pairs (最小对立体）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound. the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Minimal pair refers to two words in a language which differ from each othe
5、r by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.最小对立对指的是两个语音群（通常是单词）中的语音除了一个音不同，且不同的音处在相同的位置上，其余的成分完全相同，因此这两个语音群形成最小对立对。bear-pearpit-put,Allophones(音位变体）：The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.(
6、The variants of a phoneme)音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体 example: 单词leap和peel中的l有清晰音和模糊音之分。如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体,234,Chomskys Standard Theory consists of phonological(音位部分), semantic（语义部分）, and syntactic component（句法部分）.,句法部分（syntactic component）包含基础部分（base）和转换
7、部分（transformational rules）。基础部分的功能是生成深层结构，转换规则负责把深层结构转化为表层结构。,音位部分（phonological component）对表层结构从语音上作出解释，过程是用调整规则把表层结构中的词汇表现转化为音位表现，再用音位规则转为语音表现。音位规则的作用：增添特征，改变特征，插入音位（如复数时），省略音段等等。Phonological component processes the surface structure so that a phonetic interpretation is yielded.,语义部分（semantic compo
8、nent）负责对深层结构从语义上作出解释。Semantic component processes the deep structure so that the semantic interpretation is yielded.,235,Transformation cannot change meaning but has such functions as deletion（省略），copying（复写），addition（添加）and reordering（重排）。,237,主位（theme）和述位（rheme）韩礼德认为一个句子除了按照句法结构划分为主语、谓语等以外，还可以从语言交
9、际功能的角度对话语进行语义上的切分。Our team (T) won (R).主位是交际双方已知的信息；述位则往往是说话人要传递给听话人的新信息，是对方所不知道的信息。The rest (T) he spent on chemicals for his experiment (R).,Theme: the point of departure and goal of discourse equally present to the speaker and to the hearer.Rheme: the very information that is to be imparted to th
10、e hearer presentde by the theme.,239,Gottlob Frege proposes the theory of reference (参照) and sense (意义) . Reference refers to the objects designated. Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience. Sense refers to the additional meani
11、ng. Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves, which is only concerned with intra-linguistic relations.,249,Contextual features determine or influence the interpretation of utterances.,254,Politeness principle is a series of maxims, whi
12、ch Geoff Leech has proposed as a way of explaining how politeness operates in conversational exchange.Face refers to a speakers sense of linguistic and social identity. Tact maxim 策略准则 Generosity maxim 慷慨准则 Approbation maxim 赞扬准则 Modesty maxim 谦虚准则 Agreement maxim 赞同准则 Sympathy maxim 同情准则,Tact maxim
13、minimize the cost to others while maximize the benefits to others使他人受损最小，受惠最大。,Generosity maximminimize the benefit to self使自身受益最小maximize the cost to self使自身受损最大e.g. You must come and have dinner with us.We must come and have dinner with you.,Approbation maxim 赞扬准则Minimize dispraise of othersMaximi
14、ze praise of others尽量缩小对别人的贬损尽量夸大对别人的赞扬。,Modesty maxim 谦虚准则Minimize praise of selfMaximize dispraise of self尽量缩小对自身的赞扬尽量夸大对他人的赞扬,Agreement maxim 赞同准则Minimize disagreement between self and othersMaximize agreement between self and others.,Sympathy maxim 同情准则Minimize antipathy between self and others.
15、Maximize sympathy between self and others.,262,Mode of discourse（话语方式）refers to the linguistic reflection of the relationship the language user has to the medium of transmission.,270,Aptitude test （素质测试）：to measure the learners aptitude or natural abilities to learn languages. Proficiency test (水平测试)：to discover what the testee already knows about the target language. Achievement test（成绩测试）：to assess how much a learner has mastered the contents of a particular course. Diagnostic test （诊断测试）：to discover mainly what the testee does not know about the language.,
