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1、,Presupposition冯德煜 郑悦,Presupposition,1. Introduction 2. A semantic analysis2.1 Presupposition VS Entailment2.2 Presupposition VS focus2.3 Presupposition-triggers 3. Problems in the semantic approach3.1 Defeasibility 3.2 Projection problem 4. The Application of Presupposition,Introduction,Presupposit
2、ion is a pragmatic topic that originates within the tradition of the philosophy of language. The german mathematician and lofician gottlob frege is generally recognized as the first scholar in modern times who introduced the philosophical study of presupposition.,Presupposition can be informally def
3、ined as an inference or proposition whose truth is taken for granted in the utterance of a sentence. Its main function is to act as a precondition of some sort for the appropriate use of that sentence.,A semantic analysis,Presupposition VS Entailment,Difference between presupposition and entailment
4、(前提与蕴涵),Presupposition-is something the speaker assumes to be case prior to making an utterance .-Speaker, not sentence, have presupposition. Entailment-is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. -Sentence, not speakers, have entailments.,Presuppostion,Sentence in (1
5、) contains the proposition p, and sentence in (2) contains the proposition q, then, using the symbol to mean presuppose, we can represent the relationship as in (3).(1) Marys dog is cute. (=p)(2) Mary has a dog. (=q)(3) p q,When we produce the opposite of the sentence in (1) by negating it (=NOT p),
6、 as in (3), we find that the relationship of presupposition doesnt change. That is, the same proposition q, repeated as (4), continues to be presupposed by NOT p, as shown in (5). (3) Marys dog isnt cute. ( = NOT p) (4) Mary has a dog. ( = q ) (5) NOT p q,Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X
7、entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y. (1) John has been to France. (2) John has been to Europe. If John has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If he has not been to France, he may have been to Europe or he may have not been to Europe. Then sentence (2) is an entailment of (1),
8、Entailment,How to distinguish them?,X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)If X is true, Y is necessarily true.If X is false, Y may be true or false. X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)If X is true, Y must be true.If X is false, Y is still true.,a. John managed to stop the car. b. John stopped
9、the car.c. John tried to stop the car.b is the entailment of a. (a entails b)c is the presupposition of a. (a c),Presupposition VS focus,(1) Is it JOHN who writes poetry?(2) No, it is BILL who writes poetry.Under the normal intonation the word JOHN in (1) receives the main stress, and a possible res
10、ponse might be (2).Chomsky proposed to call the information carried by words like JOHN, BILL focus, and the embedded clause “Someone writes poetry” presupposition.(1) & (2) differ in focus but not in presupposition.,Presupposition-triggers (前提语),In the analysis of how speakers assumptions are typica
11、lly expressed, presupposition has been associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures, known as presupposition-triggers. On the basis of Karttunen (31 types presupposition-triggers), Levinson lists 13 types of them, which he regards as the set of core phenomena.,1. Defin
12、ite descriptions (确指描述语)the , this/ that + NP, the 3rd person pronoun, possessive + nJohn got married last week. There existed a person called John.The team of explorers got lost in the jungles. There was a team of explorers.This house was once owned by a rich merchant. There once existed a house. J
13、ohns wife is a school teacher. John has a wife.John saw /didnt see a man with two heads. There existed a man with two heads.,2. Factive verbs (叙实谓词) -something has happened.regret, realize, know, be aware that, be sorry that, be glad that, be proud that, be pleased that, be odd, be strange, be disap
14、pointed thatJohn realized that he had made a mistake. John made a mistake.He regretted having started the project.He started the project.Im sorry that your dog died. Your dog died.He is pleased that his son is making progress in his music lessons. His son is making progress in his music lessons.,3.I
15、mplicative verbs(蕴涵动词)-containing two meaningsmanage, forget, happenHe managed to get the ticket.He tried to get the ticket.I forget to bring the book.I ought to have brought the book.We happened to meet our neighbor in the cinema.We did not expect to meet our neighbor in the cinema.John managed/ di
16、dnt manage to open the door.John tried to open the door.,4. Change of state verbs(改变状态动词)finish, stop, begin, start, carry on, continue, cease, leave, arrive, enter, come, go, turn, transform, etc. He stopped / didnt stop smoking cigars.He had been smoking cigars. It began to snow at midnight.It did not snow before midnight. The guests arrived at 6. The guests were not here before 6. He carried on the work. Someone was doing the work. Her face turned pale.Her face had not been pale.,
