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1、Definitions of Pragmatics,Definition 1: Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. 语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化或被编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系的研究。,Definition 2: Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captu
2、red in a semantic theory. 语用学是对所有那些未能纳入语意理论的意义侧面的研究。,Definition 3: Pragmatics is the study of deixis ( at least in part), implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and aspects of discourse structure. 语用学是对指示（ 至少是其中的一部分）、含义、前提、言语行为以及话语结构各个侧面的研究。,Definition 4: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers o
3、f a language use sentences to effect successful communication.( Akmajian, 1979:267 ) 语用学是对语言的使用和语言交际进行的研究。,Pragmatics vs semantics,Similarity:both are linguistic study of meaning. Difference:pragmatics takes context into consideration,while semantics does not consider it.,context,For example, “ It i
4、s cold in here.” from semantics, it simply expresses the semantic proposition of “the low temperature in a certain place”. They do not consider the following factors as “who speaks it to whom , when, where, why etc. In other words , they do not include context in the study of meanings,语言 对所使用的语言的掌握知
5、识 对语言交际上文的了解,语言知识 对所使用的语言 的掌握 对语言交际上文的了解百科全书式的知识（常识) 语境 背景 特定文化的社会规范知识 特定文化的会话规则交际的时间、地点语言外 情景 交际的主题知 识 知识 交际的正式程度 交际参与者的相互关系 相互知识,From pragmatics,“It is cold in here”, besides stating the temperature of a place, can be used by the speaker to ask the listener to do something, such as to close the wi
6、ndow, turn on the heating or lending him a coat,Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning,A sentence is a grammatical concept,sentence meaning is abstract, intrinsic and decontextulized, utterance meaning is concrete and context-dependent and is based on sentence meaning.,The bag is heavy. Semantics ana
7、lysis :BAG(BEING HEAVY) Pragmatics:1)telling the hearer the bag is heavy2)ask the hearer to help him carry the bag 3)declining someones request for help.,Speech act theory-Austins model,First theory: constatives（叙事话语）:statements that either state or describe and verifiable Performatives（行事话语）:were s
8、entences that did not state a fact or describe a state,and were not verifiable.see examples on p88,Austins new model,Later,he gave up his distinction between constatives and performatives and set up his new model-a speaker might be performing 3 acts at the same time when speaking: locutionary act言内行
9、为,illocutionary act言外行为 and perlocutionary言后行为.,Locutionary act:the act of uttering words,phrases, clauses,its the act of conveying meaning Illocutionary act:the act of expressing the speakers Intention,its the act of perfoming sth. Perlocutionary act:the act resulting from saying sth, the consequen
10、ce of the utterance. Of the three,linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act,because it is identical with the speakers intention.,e.g.:You have left the door open,Locutionary act:utterance of all the words meaning. Illocutionary act:asking sb.to close the door,or making a complaint or st
11、h else depending on the context. Perlocutionary act:the effect of the utterance,Searles classification of speech acts,Speech acts fall into five general categories: 1.representatives(阐述类):stating or describing,saying what the speaker believes to be true.e.g.: I have never seen him before. The illucu
12、tionary point:to commit the speaker to sths being the case,Stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing are the most typical of this category.,2.directives（指令类）:to get the hearer to do sth. E.g.:open the window! inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning, threatening,ordering are instances of this
13、class.,missives（承诺类）:committing the speaker himself to some future course. E.g.:I promise to come. 4.expressives（表达类）:to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state. E.g.:Im sorry for the mess I have made.,5. Declarations（宣告类）:bringing about immediate changes by saying sth. E.g.:I fire yo
14、u! I appoint you chairman of the committee.,summary,All the acts belonging to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength. Close the door,please! Will you close the door? Can you close the door? Do you mind closing the door? I would be very grateful if you close the door.,P
15、rinciple of conversation,The objective of pragmatic study:to explain how language is used to effect successful communication.Grices Cooperative Principle(CP)-In making conversation,the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate;or it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.,F
16、our maxims,1.the maxim of quantity 2.the maxim of quality 3.the maxim of relation 4.the maxim of manner,The maxim of quantity:1.make your contribution as informative as required; 2.do not make your contribution more informative than required The maxim of quality:1. Do not say what you believe to be false 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence,The maxim of relation: be relevant The maxim of manner:1. Avoid obscurity of expression 2. Avoid ambiguity 3. Be brief 4. Be orderly,
