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1、LogicThis article is about reasoning and its study. For other uses, see Logic (disambiguation).Logic (from the Ancient Greek: , logike)1 is the use and study of valid reasoning.23 The study of logic features most prominently in the subjects of philosophy, mathematics, and computer science.Logic was
2、studied in several ancient civilizations, including India,4 China,5 Persia and Greece. In the West, logic was established as a formal discipline by Aristotle, who gave it a fundamental place in philosophy. The study of logic was part of the classical trivium, which also included grammar and rhetoric
3、. Logic was further extended by Al-Farabi who categorized it into two separate groups (idea and proof). Later, Avicenna revived the study of logic and developed relationship between temporalis and the implication. In the East, logic was developed by Buddhists and Jains.Logic is often divided into th
4、ree parts: inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning.The study of logic“ Upon this first, and in one sense this sole, rule of reason, that in order to learn you must desire to learn, and in so desiring not be satisfied with what you already incline to think, there follows one
5、 corollary which itself deserves to be inscribed upon every wall of the city of philosophy: Do not block the way of inquiry. ”Charles Sanders Peirce, First Rule of LogicThe concept of logical form is central to logic, it being held that the validity of an argument is determined by its logical form,
6、not by its content. Traditional Aristotelian syllogistic logic and modern symbolic logic are examples of formal logics. Informal logic is the study of natural language arguments. The study of fallacies is an especially important branch of informal logic. The dialogues of Plato6 are good examples of
7、informal logic. Formal logic is the study of inference with purely formal content. An inference possesses a purely formal content if it can be expressed as a particular application of a wholly abstract rule, that is, a rule that is not about any particular thing or property. The works of Aristotle c
8、ontain the earliest known formal study of logic. Modern formal logic follows and expands on Aristotle.7 In many definitions of logic, logical inference and inference with purely formal content are the same. This does not render the notion of informal logic vacuous, because no formal logic captures a
9、ll of the nuances of natural language. Symbolic logic is the study of symbolic abstractions that capture the formal features of logical inference.89 Symbolic logic is often divided into two branches: propositional logic and predicate logic. Mathematical logic is an extension of symbolic logic into o
10、ther areas, in particular to the study of model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory.Logical formMain article: Logical formLogic is generally considered formal when it analyzes and represents the form of any valid argument type. The form of an argument is displayed by representing
11、its sentences in the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical language to make its content usable in formal inference. If one considers the notion of form too philosophically loaded, one could say that formalizing simply means translating English sentences into the language of logic.This is called
12、showing the logical form of the argument. It is necessary because indicative sentences of ordinary language show a considerable variety of form and complexity that makes their use in inference impractical. It requires, first, ignoring those grammatical features irrelevant to logic (such as gender an
13、d declension, if the argument is in Latin), replacing conjunctions irrelevant to logic (such as but) with logical conjunctions like and and replacing ambiguous, or alternative logical expressions (any, every, etc.) with expressions of a standard type (such as all, or the universal quantifier ).Secon
14、d, certain parts of the sentence must be replaced with schematic letters. Thus, for example, the expression all As are Bs shows the logical form common to the sentences all men are mortals, all cats are carnivores, all Greeks are philosophers, and so on.That the concept of form is fundamental to log
15、ic was already recognized in ancient times. Aristotle uses variable letters to represent valid inferences in Prior Analytics, leading Jan ukasiewicz to say that the introduction of variables was one of Aristotles greatest inventions.10 According to the followers of Aristotle (such as Ammonius), only
16、 the logical principles stated in schematic terms belong to logic, not those given in concrete terms. The concrete terms man, mortal, etc., are analogous to the substitution values of the schematic placeholders A, B, C, which were called the matter (Greek hyle) of the inference.The fundamental difference between modern formal logic and traditional, or Aristotelian logic, lies in their differing analysis of the logical form o
