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1、Chapter TwoChapter Two Speech SoundsSpeech SoundsnAs human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. nWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology
2、. nPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. nArticulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.nAcoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.nPerceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of
3、speech sounds.nPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. nIt aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.nIn phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say Eng
4、lish, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. nThen we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to
5、 discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.1. How speech sounds are made1.1 Speech organsPosition of the vocal folds: voicelessPosition of the vocal folds: voicing (initial nthey may narrow the space considerably; or nthey may simply modify the shape of the tract by approa
6、ching each other. Stop (or Plosive) Oral nthe position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);nthe length or tenseness of the vowel (tense(紧) vs. lax （松） or long vs. short), Note that the tense or lax feature corresponds to the feature of long or short respectively.nlip-rounding (r
7、ounded vs. unrounded). Note that in English all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, ie, without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of B:, are rounded.nWe can now describe the English vowels in this way:3. From phonetics to phonologynSpeech is a c
8、ontinuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. nFor example, in the word lamb, /A/ is followed by /m/, so the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulati
9、on of / A / so that it is ready for the following nasal. Accordingly, / A / shows the influence of its neighbor / m /.3.1 Coarticulation （协同发音）ncoarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the l
10、atter becomes nasalized. nIf the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation (先期协同发音). nIf the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation（后滞协同发音）, as is the case of map （Nasal quality of / m
11、 / carries forward to the vowel / A /. In other words, the process of lowering soft palate is still in process when the articulation of / A / has begun.）nThe fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. nTo indicate that a vowel has been n
12、asalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol , as . By the same token, we can use these diacritics for recording other variations of the same sound. Take / p / for example, it is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diac
13、ritic h, as ph, whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p. nWhen we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription (宽式转写)，normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. nThe use of more specific symbols (i.e, with diacri
14、tics) to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription（窄式转写）, needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. nBoth are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets . 3.2 Phonemes （音位） nPhonology is not specifically concerned with the phys
15、ical properties of the speech production system. nPhoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations. nCrystal: Phonological analysis relies on the principle t
16、hat certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. For instance, in the word pit pit, if we replace / p / by / b /, a different word results: bi
