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1、Chapter 4 Deep-structure Deviation: it refers to semantic deviation, which may be defined as “Linguistic effects involving something odd in the cognitive meaning of a certain linguistic unit, e. g., a word or phrase” (Leech, 1969; 131)” 4.1 ContradictionContradiction is a type of semantic deviation
2、which conveys self-conflicting information. It can be readily divided into two types which are termed in rhetoric oxymoron and paradox. 4.1.1 Oxymoron Oxymoron is “the yoking together of two expressions which are incompatible, so that in combination they have no conceivable literal reference to real
3、ity” (Leech, 1969:132) Understanding：It is a figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction. The conjunction of words which, at first view, seem to be contradictory or incongruous, but whose surprising juxtaposition expresses a truth or dramatic effect, such as, cool
4、fire, deafening silence, wise folly, etc. . Example: Dudley Field Malene called my conviction a , “victorious defeat .” 4.1.2 Paradox A paradox is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false. In brief, oxymoron and paradox are devices that allow the literary writer to express a ce
5、rtain truth or message through apparent falsehood.Understanding：It is a seemingly absurd or contradictory statement, even if actually well- founded. And it is a true statement or group of statements that leads to a contradiction or a situation which defies intuition. The term is also used for an app
6、arent contradiction that actually expresses anon-dual truth. Example: His complaint is too funny not to be taken seriously.4.2 TransferenceTransference of meaning is the process whereby literary absurdity leads the mind to comprehension on a figurative plane. Transference in literature refers to suc
7、h traditional figures of speech as synecdoche, metonymy and metaphor. 4.2.1 Synecdoche Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole. Understanding: a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa. And it invol
8、ves the use of a narrower or a more general term to designate something, eg “a sail!“ meaning “a ship!“ Example: The case had erupted round my head. 4.2.2 Metonymy Metonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and therefore has often been confused with synecdoche. However, me
9、tonymy is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part. Understanding: It is the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another. Example: Mark Twains pen would prove mightier
10、than his pickax. 4.2.3 Metaphor Metaphor, the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning. There are three elements in a metaphor. .tenor (for the literal meaning) . Vehicle (for the figurative meaning) . The ground (of comparison)Metaphor has bee
11、n classified into types in different ways. There are five main types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapmans organization. (1983:81-82) A. One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another,e.g. B. A non-human referent is given human attributes, e.g. C. A non-animate ref
12、erent is given animate characteristics, e. g. D. An abstraction is treated as if it were animate, e.g. E.A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird, e.g. Understanding: Metaphors are comparisons that equate two entities to show that the two distinct entities are
13、similar/comparable in one important way. Metaphors are a way to describe something. Authors use them to make their writing more interesting or entertaining. Unlike similes that use the words “as“ or “like“ to make a comparison, metaphors state that something is something else. Example: Her eyes were
14、 pools of water.4.34.3 DeceptionDeceptionDeception simply refers to the deliberate use of overstatement, understatement and irony, each of which misrepresents the truth in some way. 4.3.1 Overstatement Overstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggera
15、tion. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental, satiric or comic effect. Understanding: Overstatement- making something seems more important than it really is. An overstatement is often metaphorical. Example: The trial that rocked the world.4.3.24.3.2 Understatement
16、UnderstatementUnderstatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understating is as opposed to exaggerating it. There are two types of understatement, namely litotes and meiosis. Litotes is the most common and is marked by the use of a negative construction. It is employed to foreground a positive emphasis. Meiosis is merely understatement without the use of a negative construction, e.g. Understanding
