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1、11.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and
2、 stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and“, “but“, “or“. For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.
3、 A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics. 2. What is language?
4、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. (1)Arbitrariness is the core feature of
5、 language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness is a matter of degree. (2)Duelity of structure refers to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning.At the first level, language is analyzed
6、in terms of combinations of meaningfulunits(such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second , lower level, it is seen as sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. (3)Productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an difinitel
7、y large number of sentences in ones language, including those that one has never heard before. (4)Displacement refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. (5)Cultural transmission shows that language is not biologically transmitted fro
8、m generation to generation, but have to be learned and taught. (6)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3. The orgin of language (1)The bow-bow theory: in primitive times people imitated the sounds of animal calls in the wild enironment they
9、lived and speech developed from that. Onomatopoetic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory. (2)The pooh-pooch theory: in the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger, and joy. (3)The “yo-he-yo“ theory: as primitive people worked together, the
10、y produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.4. Functions of language (1)The informative function is regarded as the most important function of language (2)The interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language by which people es
11、tablish and maintain their status in a society. (3)The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies. the language used is quite formal and even ritualized. (4)The emotive function changes the emotional status of an audience for or against someo
12、ne or something. It is similar to expressive function but the latter can be totally without any implication of communication to others. (5)the phatic communion enables people to maintain a comfortable relationship without involving any factual content.2(6)the recreational function refers to the use
13、of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting. (7)The metlingual function means that we can use language to talk about language.5. What is linguistics? Linguistics is the study scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language , but is
14、based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The four principles that make linguistics a science are exhausiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.6. Some basic distinctions in linguistics (1)Speech and Writing
15、One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech doesnot have (2)Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性) A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyzes facts observed; it is prescriptive if it trie
16、s to lay down rules for “correct“ behavour. (3)Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) The description of a language at some point of in time is a sychronic study and the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (4)Langue(语言) and Parole(言语) This is the distinction made by the Swiss linguistist F. De Saussure early last century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community an
