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1、IIP a r tWATER AND WASTESInterior designers are often involved in the selection and specification of plumbing fixtures. Lets start our dis- cussion of this topic with a brief look at the history of plumbing fixtures. Indoor bathrooms were not common in homes un- til around 1875, but their history go
2、es back thousands of years. Archeologists in Scotlands Orkney Islands discovered a latrine-like plumbing system dating to 8000BCthat carried wastes from stone huts to streams in a series of crude drains. Hygiene has been a religious imperative for Hindus since 3000 BC, when many homes in India had p
3、rivate bathroom facilities. In the Indus Valley of Pakistan, archeologists have found ancient pri- vate and public baths fitted with terracotta pipes en- cased in brickwork, with taps controlling the flow of water. The most sophisticated early baths belonged to Minoan royal families. In their palace
4、 at Knossos on Crete, bathtubs were filled and emptied by vertical stone pipes cemented at their joints. These were eventually re- placed by pottery pipes slotted together much like mod- ern pipes. They provided both hot and cold water, and removed drainage waste from the royal palace. The Minoans a
5、lso had the first flush toilet, a latrine with an overhead reservoir fed by trapping rainwater or by fill- ing with buckets from a cistern.By 1500 BC, aristocratic Egyptian homes used cop- per pipes for hot and cold water. Whole-body bathing was part of religious ceremonies, and priests were re- qui
6、red to immerse themselves in cold water four times a day. The Mosaic Law of the Jews (1000930 BC) re- lated bodily cleanliness to moral purity, and complex public waterworks were built throughout Palestine under the rule of David and Solomon. Bathing became a social occasion in the second centuryBCi
7、n Rome, when massive public bath com- plexes included gardens, shops, libraries, exercise rooms and lounge areas for poetry readings. The Baths of Caracalla offered body oiling and scraping salons; hot, warm, and cold tubs; sweating rooms; hair sham- pooing, setting, and curling areas; manicure shop
8、s; and a gymnasium. Shops sold cosmetics and perfumes. Up to 2500 members at a time visited the spas and the ad- jacent gallery of Greek and Roman art, library, and lec- ture hall. In another room, slaves served food and wine to spa visitors. All of this was only for men, but women had their own sma
9、ller spa nearby. Eventually, men and women mixed at spas, but apparently without major promiscuous behavior, a practice that lasted well into the Christian era until the Catholic Church began to dictate state policy. All this luxury ended around 500 AD, when invad-13C h a p t e rPlumbing Fixtures66i
10、ng barbarians destroyed most tiled baths and terra- cotta aqueducts, leading to a decline in bathing and personal cleanliness during the Middle Ages. The Christian view at the time emphasized the mortifica- tion of the flesh, and whole-body bathing was linked to temptation and sin. Nobody bathed, bu
11、t the rich used perfume to cover body odors. Outhouses, out- door latrines and trenches, and chamber pots replaced indoor toilets. Christian prudery and medical super- stitions about the evils of bathing led to an end to san- itation and the rise of disease and epidemics. In the 1500s, the Reformati
12、ons emphasis on avoiding sin and temptation led people to expose as little skin as possible to soap and water. There was almost no bath- room plumbing, even in grand European palaces. A 1589 English royal court public warning posted in the palace, and quoted in Charles Panatis Extraordinary Origins
13、of Everyday Things (Harper this is to prevent a hand or arm getting caught between bar and wall. Walls behind the seat and grab bars must be reinforced to support up to 114 kg (250 lb). This is done by installing 2? ? 4? or 2? ? 8? blocks horizontally between framing joists. Controls should be insta
14、lled above the grab bar. Shower enclosures are usually enameled steel, stain- less steel, ceramic tile, or fiberglass. Frames for shower doors come in a variety of finishes. The handle that comes with the door can be upgraded to match the bath- room decor. Etched glass doors add a design element to
15、the bathroom. Glass panel anti-derailing mechanisms add to safety. Open, walk-in styles of showers with no doors are also an option. Heavy glass frameless enclosures that can be joined with clear silicone are available up to 13 mm (?1 2?in.) thick, although the thinner 10 mm (?3 8?in.) is usually ad
16、- equate. Body sprays with lots of jets pounding right at a frameless door will inevitably leak, so pointing them against a solid wall may be a better option. A vinyl gas- ket can deter leaks, but may defeat the visual effect of the frameless glass, and is unlikely to be effective for very long. Totally frameless enclosures always lose a cer- tain degree of water, and glass doors generally dont keep steam in and dont retain the heat as well as framed doors. Complete water tightness m
