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1、Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional.Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alt
2、ernatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works. 2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from an
3、y animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc. Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic wo
4、rds. Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.the lower or the basic level- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but
5、 can be grouped and regrouped into words. the higher level -morphemes and words which are meaningful Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Displacement refers to the fact that lang
6、uage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of commun
7、ication 3. Jakobsons classification of functions of language. Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact. 1).Referential function 所指功能 2).Poetic function 诗学功能 3).Emotive function 感情功能 4)
8、.Conative function 意动功能 5).Phatic function 交感功能 6).Metalingual 元语言功能 Hu Zhuanglin classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them. 1).Informative function 信息功能 2).Interpersonal function 人际功能 3).Performative function 施为功能 4).Emotive function 感情功能 5).Phatic communion 交
9、感性谈话 6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能 7).Metalingual function 元语言功能 4. What are the major differences between Saussures distinction between langue and parole and Chomskys distinction between competence and performance? According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking si
10、tuation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. According to N. Chomsky, Competence enables a speaker to produ
11、ce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence;
12、Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 1. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the
13、actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds. Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language
14、 form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication1. Lips 2. Teeth 3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈 4. Hard palate 硬腭 5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭 6. Uvula 小舌 7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 舌面 9. Back of tongue 10. Vocal cords 声带 11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasa
15、l cavity 鼻腔 2.Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth) Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind) allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of
16、 a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme = phone = set of allophones IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet. Minimal pairs 最小对立体 Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. e.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneminima
