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1、1第二课 法律职业Background背景美国的法律职业由律师、法官、检察官和法学教师组成。不过，这几种人又都可以称为律师(lawyer)，而且他们都可以是律师协会(Bar)成员。由此可见，美国法律职业内部的职业划分并不象中国及世界上大多数国家那样严格和确定。诚然，这里有语言习惯问题，但它也在一定程度上反映了美国各种法律工作者之间人员变换的频繁性，而且这种变换总以律师为中心。美国的法官一般都从律师中产生，而且他们在担任法官期间仍可保留律师资格，只是不能从事律师业务而已。美国的检察官与律师之间几乎没有任何职业差别。实际上，美国的检察官就被称为律师(attorney)。检察官与律师(我们中国人所熟
2、悉之含义上的律师)之间的区别仅在于前者受雇于政府，后者受雇于私人或自己开业；前者在刑事案件中负责公诉，后者在刑事案件中负责辩护。此外，美国的法学教师一般都是当地的律师。美国律师之多，在世界上堪称第一。据 1984 年的统计，美国共有 649 万名律师，其与人口的比例为 1364。美国律师多的主要原因是法律在其社会生活中起着非常重要的作用。除各种法律纠纷外，人们从生到死、从结婚到离婚、从生活到工作，往往都需要律师的帮助。有些人几乎事事都要请教律师。诚然，这说明美国人具有很强的法律意识，但也说明美国的许多法律规定过于复杂。一般来说，美国人认为到法院去解决社会生活中的法律纠纷是天经地义的，但这并不等
3、于说美国人喜欢打官司。例如，美国有一个流传颇广的谐音字谜：有一种套服无人喜欢，是什么?(There is a kind of suits that nobody likes. What is it?)回答是：打官司。(lawsuits.)其实，美国人事事找律师也往往出于无可奈何。因此，美国的律师才得到了各种各样、褒贬不一的外号，如：租用之枪(hired guns)；讼棍(shysters)；职业投刀手(professional knife throwers)；限用之友 (limited purpose friends); 社会工程师(social engineers)；社会正义之斗士(cham
4、pions for social justice)等。Text课文Part One： The Bar 第一部分 律师协会The regulation of the legal profession is primarily the concern of the states, each of which has its own requirements for admission to practice. Most require three years of college and a law degree. Each state administers its own written ex
5、amination to applicants for its bar. Almost all states, however, make use of the Multistate Bar Exam, a daylong multiplechoice test, to which the state adds a daylong essay examination emphasizing its own law. A substantial fraction of all applicants succeed on the first try, and many of those who f
6、ail pass on a later attempt. In all, over forty thousand persons succeed in passing these examinations each year and, after an inquiry into their character, are admitted to the bar in their respective states. No apprenticeship is required either before or after admission. The rules for admission to
7、practice before the federal courts vary with the court, but generally those entitled to practice before the highest court of a state may be admitted before the federal courts upon compliance with minor formalities.法律职业的规范主要是各州的事务，每一各州对于执业许可都有其自己的要求。大多数州都要求三年的学业和法律学位。各州自行管理本州申请律师资格的书面考试。不过，几乎2所有的州都利用
8、“多州律师资格考试”，这是一种长达一天的多项选择测试，在这项考试之外，各州还会再增加一次主要是关于其本州法律的时长一天的论文考试。大多数申请人都可以通过第一次考试，而且许多失败者都会在下一次考试中通过。每年有四万多人通过这些考试，在经过人品调查之后，他们便可获准在相应的州执业许可。在获得许可之前或之后都不要求实习。到各联邦法院执业的许可规则互不相同，但一般来讲，那些获准在州最高法院执业的律师在办理一些无关紧要的手续之后即可获准在联邦法院执业。A lawyers practice is usually confined to a single community for, although a
9、lawyer may travel to represent clients, one is only permitted to practice in a state where one has been admitted. It is customary to retain local counsel for matters in other jurisdictions. However, one who moves to another state can usually be admitted without examination if one has practiced in a
10、state where one has been admitted for some time, often five years.律师执业范围通常仅限于一个地区，因为尽管律师可以代表当事人到其它地区办理事务，但是一个人只能在其获得许可的州内执业。人们习惯雇用本州的律师办理其它洲的事务。但是，只要一个人已经在其获得职业资格的州执业达一定时间（通常是五年），那么他移居到另外一个州时通常无需考试便可获得执业许可。Part Two： Lawyers in Private Practice第二部分 私人执业中的律师Among these fifteen lawyers in practice, nin
11、e, a clear majority, are single practitioners. The remaining six practice in law firms, which are generally organized as partnerships. Four or five of these six are partners and the others are associates, a term applied to salaried lawyers employed by a firm or another lawyer. This trend toward grou
12、p practice is of relatively recent origin. Throughout most of the nineteenth century law practice was general rather than specialized, its chief ingredient was advocacy rather than counselling and drafting, and the prototype of the American lawyer was the single practitioner. Marked specialization b
13、egan in the latter part of that century in the large cities near the financial centers. With the growth of big business, big government, and big labor, the work of the lawyer accomodated itself to the needs of clients for expert counselling and drafting to prevent as well as to settle disputes. The
14、best lawyers were attracted to this work and leadership of the bar gravitated to persons who rarely if ever appeared in court and who were sought after as advisors, planners, and negotiators. Today the lawyer regards it as sound practice to be continuously familiar with clients business problems and
15、 to participate at all steps in the shaping of their policies. Major business transactions are rarely undertaken without advice of counsel.每十五个执业律师中有九个（明显的多数）都是单独执业者。剩下六个在律师事务所执业，这些所一般是合伙制。这六个律师中有四到五个都是合伙人，其余的为非合伙律师（雇佣律师）。这种集体执业的趋势只是在近年来才开始出现。十九世纪的大多数时间内，律师执业都是非专业化的，其主要内容是辩护而不是咨询和起草法律文书，因此美国律师的最早3形式
16、是单独执业。明显的专业化出现于十九世纪后期金融中心附近的大城市里。随着出现大型的企业、庞大的政府和大规模的劳工，律师的工作本身要适应客户对解决争端以及专业咨询和起草法律文书等预防性法律事务的需要。出类拔萃的律师都被吸引到这一领域，而且律师职业领导的重心转向了那些很少出庭的从事顾问、做计划以及从事谈判的人。现在，律师认为不断熟悉客户的业务问题并参与其政策制定的各个步骤已经成了一种正常、合理的执业形式。Lesson Three: Legal Education 法律教育Background背景美国的法律教育体制具有一个不同于世界上其他国家的特点，即没有一般意义上的法学本科生。美国法学院的学生都是本科毕业生。换言之，申请入法学院学习者必须已在其他专业领域内获得了学士学位。这反映了美国人注重权利和法律的传统。他们认为，法律事务涉及人的各种权利和复杂的社会生活，因此从事法律工作的人应该象医生一样，具有比从事其他职业的人更为丰富的学识和经历。从理论上讲，在任何专业领域内获得学士学位的人都可以考法学院；但是在实践
