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1、中西文化（Chinese and Western Cultures）,西北师范大学外国语学院,第一讲 “文化”释义,一、“文化”二字的起源考证,“文”： 据专家考证，“文化”是中国语言系统中古已有之的词汇。“文”的本义，指各色交错的纹理。易系辞下载：“物相杂，故曰文。”礼记乐记称：“五色成文而不乱。”说文解字称：“文，错画也，象交叉”均指此义。在此基础上，“文”又有若干引申义。其一，为包括语言文字内的各种象征符号，进而具体化为文物典籍、礼乐制度。尚书 序所载伏曦画八卦，造书契，“由是文籍生焉”，论语子罕所载孔子说“文王既没，文不在兹乎”，是其实例。其二，由伦理之说导出彩画、装饰、人为修养之义，
2、与“质”、“实”对称，所以尚书舜典疏曰“经纬天地曰文”，论语雍也称“质胜文则野，文胜质则史，文质彬彬，然后君子”。其三，在前两层意义之上，更导出美、善、德行之义，这便是礼记乐记所谓“礼减两进，以进为文”，郑玄注“文犹美也，善也”，尚书大禹谟所谓“文命敷于四海，祗承于帝”。,“化”： “化”，本义为改易、生成、造化，如庄子逍遥游：“化而为鸟，其名曰鹏”。易系辞下：“男女构精，万物化生”。黄帝内经素问：“化不可代，时不可违”。礼记中庸：“可以赞天地之化育”等等。归纳以上诸说，“化”指事物形态或性质的改变，同时“化”又引申为教行迁善之义。,“文”与“化”并联使用，较早见之于战国末年儒生编辑的易贲卦象
3、传：（刚柔交错），天文也。文明以止，人文也。观乎天文，以察时变；观乎人文，以化成天下。,这段话里的“文”，即从纹理之义演化而来。日月往来交错文饰于天，即“天文”，亦即天道自然规律。同样，“人文”，指人伦社会规律，即社会生活中人与人之间纵横交织的关系，如君臣、父子、夫妇、兄弟、朋友，构成复杂网络，具有纹理表象。这段话说，治国者须观察天文，以明了时序之变化，又须观察人文，使天下之人均能遵从文明礼仪，行为止其所当止。在这里，“人文”与“化成天下”紧密联系，“以文教化”的思想已十分明确。,西汉以后，“文”与“化”方合成一个整词，如“圣人之治天下也，先文德而后武力。凡武之兴，为不服也。文化不改，然后加诛
4、”（说苑指武），“文化内辑，武功外悠”（文选补之诗）。这里的“文化”，或与天造地设的自然对举，或与无教化的“质朴”、“野蛮”对举。,因此，在汉语系统中，“文化”的本义就是“以文教化”，它表示对人的性情的陶冶，品德的教养，本属精神领域之范畴。而随着时间的流变和空间的差异，现在“文化”已成为一个内涵丰富、外延宽广的多维概念，成为众多学科探究、阐发、争鸣的对象，,Etymology of culture,The etymology of the modern term culture has a classical origin. In English, the word culture is ba
5、sed on a term used by Cicero, who, in his Tusculan Disputations, wrote of a cultivation of the soul or cultura animi, thereby using an agricultural metaphor to describe the development of a philosophical soul, which was understood teleologically as the one natural highest possible ideal for human de
6、velopment. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy is mans natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and throu
7、gh artifice, become fully human.,As described by Velkley (Velkley, Richard (2002). The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy. Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question. The University of Chicago Press): The term culture, which original
8、ly meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meanings in the writings of the eighteenth-century German thinkers, who on various levels developing Rousseaus criticism of modern liberalism and Enlightenment. Thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually
9、 implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Two primary meanings of culture emerge from this period: culture as the folk-spirit having a unique identity, and culture as cultivation of inwardness or free individuality. The first meaning is predominant in our current use of the term cu
10、lture, although the second still plays a large role in what we think culture should achieve, namely the full expression of the unique of authentic self.,Culture (Latin: cultura, lit. cultivation) is a term that has many different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn com
11、piled a list of 164 definitions of culture in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions.However, the word culture is most commonly used in three basic senses:,1)Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture 2)An integrated pattern of human knowledge, be
12、lief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning 3)The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group,When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it connoted a p
13、rocess of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-nineteenth century, so
14、me scientists used the term culture to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.,二、什么是文化,所谓文化，是指人在改造客观世界、在协调群体关系、在调节自身情感的过
15、程中所表现出来的时代特征、地域风格和民族样式。由于旧石器时代不同地域出土的器物中尚无风格和样式上的差别，因而“文化”一词只有在新石器时代以后才被使用，如“仰韶文化”、“龙山文化”等。,文化是人类生活的反映，活动的记录，历史的积沉，是人们对生活的需要和要求、理想和愿望，是人们的高级精神生活。是人们认识自然，思考自己，是人精神得以承托的框架。它包含了一定的思想和理论，是人们对伦理、道德和秩序的认定与遵循，是人们生活生存的方式方法与准则。思想和理论是文化的核心、灵魂，没有思想和理论的文化是不存在的。任何一种文化都包含有一种思想和理论，生存的方式和方法。,现代汉语词典- 文化：“（1）人类在社会历史发
16、展过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和，特指精神财富，如文学、艺术、教育、科学等；（2）考古学用语，指同一个历史时期的不依分布地点为转移的遗迹、遗物的综合体。同样的工具、用具，同样的制造技术等，是同一种文化的特征，如仰韶文化、龙山文化。（3）指运用文字的能力及一般知识。”,Some definitions from western scholars:,“Culture is the collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from those of a
17、nother. Culture in this sense is a system of collectively held values.” - Geert Hofstede“Culture is the deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization, that operate unconsciously and define in a basic taken for granted fashion an organizations view of its self and its environment.” - Edgar Schein,
