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1、实用主义和进步主义,Pragmatism and Progressivism,Pragmatism,Pragma,tism,Workact,实用主义概览,一种以理论或理念的实际效应（实用性）为判断真理标准的方法或哲学。一种自19世纪末以来对美国文化产生了重大影响的哲学运动。主要代表人物：皮尔士，詹姆斯和杜威（Charles S. Peirce, William James, and John Dewey）,实用主义概览,实用主义要求把理论和理念应用于实践并在实践中检验。评判标准是这种理论在实践中是否达到了合意的结果。所有有关真理、知识、道德和政治的主张都必须以这种方式加以检验。,实用主义哲学的
2、根源,归纳：一种新的思维方式培根（Francis Bacon ，1561-1626）传统的思维方式演绎以某种不证自明的观点出发，其它观点或结论均由此推出。亚里士多德的三段论宗教和思辨哲学新的思维方式归纳重视人的日常生活世界中的经验自然科学,实用主义哲学的根源,然而实用主义理论家并不将这种方法限于自然和物质的研究米德（Mead）将之应用于社会和心理学领域 詹姆斯（James）将之应用于宗教和道德的阐释 杜威（Dewey）将之应用于教育学和社会学领域,实用主义哲学的根源,经验是其核心洛克（John Locke，1632-1704）人的大脑在出生时就如一块白板（a tabula rasa）观念不是天
3、生的，得自于经验观念正确与否需要在经验中加以检验,实用主义哲学的根源,自然主义的影响卢梭（Jean-Jacques Rousseau，1712-1778）文明（科学和艺术）会让我们偏离自然，因而是有害的。相信人身上内在的善爱弥儿：在教育中付诸自然主义的实例影响了Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori, Dewey等教育理论家。,实用主义哲学的根源,关于科学与社会孔德（Auguste Comte，1798-1857）现代社会学之父用科学来解决社会问题 达尔文（Charles Darwin，1809-1882）物竞天择与宇宙的进化实在并不是静止的，而处在不断地生成当中。,实
4、用主义哲学的主要代表人物,皮尔士（Peirce 1839-1914）,美国实用主义的创始人曾就读于哈佛大学曾于1864-1884之间在约翰霍普金斯大学和哈佛大学任教。,Peirce (1839-1914),物体或概念没有内在的有效性或重要性，它的意义只在于使用当中所产生的实际效用。存在就是有用。,詹姆斯（William James，1842-1910）,美国哲学家和心理学家曾在美国和欧洲的私立学校接受教育1872年在哈佛大学任心理学讲师 1880后教授心理学和哲学1907年离开哈佛，曾在哥伦比亚大学和牛津大学作过非常成功的报告。有用就是真理真理不是绝对的和永恒的，相反，它是人在真实的生活事件中
5、创造的。,杜威（John Dewey，1859-1952）,美国哲学家、心理学家、教育家1879年在佛蒙特大学获得文学学士学位，1884年在约翰霍普金斯大学获得哲学博士学位. 1884 1888任教于密执根大学，1888-1889年明尼苏达，1889 -1894年又返回密执根大学. 1894 -1904年在芝加哥大学工作，之后一直任教于哥伦比亚大学，直到1931年作为荣誉教授退休。 曾在中国，日本、墨西哥、土耳其和前苏联从事教学和研究。,John Dewey (1859-1952),经验的本质既是过程，又是结果。我们经验自然，并在其与自然的关系中来审视经验。经验与自然是不可分的。,John D
6、ewey (1859-1952),实验主义与工具主义世界是变化的、不确定的观念是解决问题的工具，问题的解决应建立在实验的基础上，只有这样我们才能获得经验并通过修正经验取得更好的结果。关注方法而不是抽象的理论思维五步 Five steps of thinking,Five steps of thinking,Problematic situationDefine the problemSurvey, investigate, and research itConjecture possible alternatives of actionChoose the alternative, test
7、it by acting on it,John Dewey (1859-1952),个性与社会关系Experience is first and distinctions of subjectivity (or individuality) and objectivity (or the social and physical environment) come out of experience.Individuality: the interplay of personal choice and freedom with objective conditionsSociality: a m
8、edium or milieu conducive to individual development,John Dewey (1859-1952),Moral DevelopmentMoral rules should be considered in the light of particular situations and in terms of their consequences.Each action may be judged good or bad in terms of its moral outcomes.Moral traits are to be acquired b
9、y individual participation in the social context and its cultural heritage or by learning about morality through living and reflective inquiry.,Aesthetic DevelopmentAn aesthetic experience is one in which the contributions of both the individual and the environment or the internal and the external a
10、re in harmony.Experience that provides unity and completion,John Dewey (1859-1952),Pragmatism as a philosophy,Metaphysicsthe primacy of practicethe rejection of sharp dichotomies such as those between fact and value, thought and experience, mind and body, analytic and synthetic etc; the willingness
11、to embrace fallibilism;,Pragmatism as a philosophy,The human being within a changing environmentInstead of searching for immutable answers in metaphysical realms outside of human experience, Pragmatists go directly to the interactions that people have with the environment.,Pragmatism as a philosophy
12、,Pragmatist epistemologyThe epistemology of early pragmatism was heavily influenced by Darwinian thinking Real and true are labels that have a function in inquiry and cannot be understood outside of that context. It is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment th
13、at theories acquire meaning, and only with a theorys success in this struggle does it become true. Nothing practical or useful is held to be necessarily true.,Pragmatism as a philosophy,Concept of truth Spoken truth is not ready-made, but jointly we and reality make truth. Truth is mutable, Truth is
14、 relativeTruth is a transformation of our experience but that doesnt imply reality is something were free to construct or imagine as we please.,Important principles,Our ideas need to be tested empirically in actual human experience;Experience results from the interaction of the person with his envir
15、onment;In the course of experience, the person encounters new obstacles that block ongoing experience.,Pragmatism,a philosophy of education,Aims of Education,Education should not be looked on as a preparation for life but as an important part of life that children themselves actually live.Deweys req
16、uirements on aims:should grow out of existing conditions;should be tentative, and maintain flexibility;must always be directed toward a freeing of activities.,Aims of Education,The aim of education is growth.“Since growth is the characteristic of life, education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself.”Education for growth goes together with education for a democratic society.The function of education is to help people direct, control, and guide personal and social experience for a more democratic way of life.,
