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1、1,语言学复习,2,1. Invitations to Linguistics,What is language? What are the design features of language? What is arbitrariness? What is duality? What is creativity? What is displacement?,3,7. The origin of language. 8. What functions does language have? 9. What is Linguistics? 10. What are the main branc
2、hes of linguistics? 11. Important distinctions in Liguistics. 1、Descriptive pit; spit 语音属于言语 2） Phoneme（音位）：phonological unit 是音位学单位，音位属于语言。/ph p=/ 3）Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones representing a phoneme are allophones. /pit/; / tip/; /spit/,18,3. From Morpheme to Phrase,What is morphology? W
3、hat is a morpheme? What is an allomorph? What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme? What is a root? What is a stem? What is an affix? What are open classes? What are closed classes? What is word?,19,“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the r
4、ules by which words are formed. “Morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided. An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.,20,Free Morphemes: independent of other morphemes. complete meani
5、ng; used as free grammatical units in sentences man, earth, wind, car, anger Bound Morphemes: cannot occur as separate words recollection re/collect/ion,21,Root（词根） : is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. Stem（词干）: may consist of a single root m
6、orpheme or plus one or more affixational morphemes. Affixes（词缀）: are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.,22,Closed class words （封闭类词） Open-class words （开放类词） 1) Closed words : their membership is fixed or limited. E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc. 2) Open-c
7、lass words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. e.g. n. v. adj. adv. E.g. regarding / with regard to ; throughout, in spite of,23,Word: is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning.,24,4. From Word to Text,1. What is syntax? 2. What is category? What is
8、 syntactic category? 3. What is IC analysis? 4. What are endocentric and exocentric constructions? 5. What is concord?,25,1. What is Syntax? Syn :“together ” Tax:“to arrange” Syntax: It studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. In short: It studies the f
9、ormation of sentences.,26,2. Category Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic category: 能在句子中起相同作用的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同于词类，两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一句法范畴。,27,3. What is Immediate Con
10、stituent (IC) Analysis? The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结构体） and its Constituents（成分）. To analyze their relations is IC. To show how small constituents in sentences go together to form large constituents.,28,With Bloomfields IC Analysis: The boy kicked th
11、e ball The boy kicked the ball,29,S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy kicked the ball With Chomskys Tree Diagram analysis,30,4. Endocentric and Exocentric constructions:向心结构和离心结构 P78 Endocentric Construction: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent
12、s. A word or a group of words serves as a definable “center.” 某一成分决定了整体短语的性质 two pretty girls,31,Exocentric Construction: opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole; there is no def
13、inable centre or head inside the group. 整体短语中的成分无法决定整体短语的性质。 It includes basic sentence, PP, (V+O) construction, and connective construction (be+complement).,32,Concord : also known as Agreement, the form of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some
14、categories. There is a book on the shelf. There are some books on the shelf. We are studying English. He studies English.,33,5. Meaning,1. What is semantics? 2. What is referential theory? 3. What is ideational theory? 4. What is the Semantic Triangle? 5. How many kinds of meaning did Leech find and
15、 study? 6. What is sense relation? 7. What is entailment? What is presupposition？ 8. What is componential analysis?,34,Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is kno
16、wn as the referential theory.,35,Frege 为弥补指称论之不足，提出了观念论，认为语言符号和符号所指对象之间不存在直接的指称关系，它是经过涵义（Sense）这一过渡层面使得语言与所指对象发生联系的，意义不仅仅在于与所指对象之间的关系，也包括词语本身的涵义。,Ideational Theory 观念论,36,Ogden & Richards(1923): Semantic Triangle (Triangle of Significance) P36 Concept(Sense) 概念（涵义） - word (symbol) thing (referent) 符号形式 指称对象,37,G . Leech recognizes 7 types of meaning in hi
