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1、Improving metacognitive accuracy: How failing to retrieve practice items reduces overconfidence,提高元认知的准确性：提取练习项目失败如何降低过度自信,Authors：Tyler M. Miller F(1,38) = 13.90, MSE = 0.01, p = .001, 2 p = .27)， M = .21, SE = .04 .,In terms of metacognitive monitoring accuracy, retrieval practice failure affected
2、 participants monitoring accuracy, whereas retrieval practice success did not. In particular, retrieval failure prior to the final memory test allowed participants to adjust their predictions. That is, after retrieval failure, participants reduced their predictions and became less overconfident. In
3、Experiment 2, we directly manipulated retrieval success and failure to examine their effects on metacognitive monitoring accuracy. 提取练习失败影响了被试记忆监测的准确性，而提取成功不影响。 最后测试之前的提取失败让被试调整了他们的预测，也就是说提取失败之后，被试降低了预测，不再过分自信。 实验2直接操纵了提取的成功与失败，来考察元认知监测准确性的影响。,3. Experiment 2,More participants would fail to retrieve
4、 the difficult practice item than the easy practice item .,Retrieval practice failure is more beneficial for metacognitive accuracy than retrieval practice success.,Hypothesis:,3. Experiment 2,3.1. Method and materials 3.1.1. Participants Ninety younger adults (52% male) between the ages of 18 and 2
5、9 (M = 19.74, SE = .21) participated in return for partial course credit. Participants were undergraduate students with between 12 and 16 years of education (M = 13.74, SE = .11).Across conditions, participants did not differ in average age or education (Fs 1.5).,3.1.2. Design,Experiment 2 used a 2
6、Condition (Easy Retrieval Practice and Difficult Retrieval Practice) 2 Performance Prediction (Original and Adjusted) mixed randomized repeated model. Participants were randomly assigned to either the Easy (n = 45) or the Difficult retrieval practice condition (n = 45) and made two performance predi
7、ctions.,3.1.3. Materials and procedure,We used the same 40 LithuanianEnglish paired associates as Experiment 1 from Grimaldi et al. (2010).,Easy Retrieval Practice condition : recall the English equivalent of sesuo (sister)(50%).,不告诉被试他们是在容易提取条件下还是困难提取条件下，程序和实验1大致相似。,Difficult Retrieval Practice con
8、dition : recall the English equivalent of muilas (soap)(4%).,图1 实验1和实验2中被试在初始预测和调整预测中总的百分比。虚线为每种条件下的平均回忆成绩。,But results from experiment 2 do not explain why retrieval practice failure is better for metacognitive accuracy than retrieval success. Practice items must be diagnostic of the final memory t
9、est (i.e., the diagnosticity assumption; Dunlosky, Rawson, therefore participants had practice with a test item that was representative, or diagnostic, of the final test. Thus, the difficult test condition benefitted participants metacognitive accuracy. 一种可能的推断是困难提取练习项目是记忆测试的诊断，因此被试用一个典型的诊断性的练习项目来测试
10、。,4. Experiment 3,4.1. Method and materials,实验1和2的结果表明，提取练习失败对提高元认知的准确性比提取成功有更大的益处。 预测1，较高的提取失败的数量对元认知准确性的提高比较低的更有益。 预测2，过多的提取失败将会使被试过度降低预测成绩，导致信心不足的元认知错误。,预测3，根据诊断假设理论（ diagnosticity assumption ）(Dunlosky et al., 2002)，人们不太关心提取成功或失败的总体数目，而关心提取练习测试上的成绩和最后测试成绩的相似性。 练习项目的成绩和最后测试成绩越相近就代表被试的元认知准确性越好。 实验
11、3就是梳理这些潜在的假设，为什么提取失败提高元认知的准确性。,Two hundred and seventy-four younger adults (26% male) between the ages of 17 and 28 (M = 18.85, SE = .10) participated in return for partial course credit. Participants were undergraduate students with between 12 and 16 years of education (M = 12.50, SE = .05). Partic
12、ipants did not differ in average age or education across conditions (Fs 1.0).,4.1.1. Participants,4.1.2. Design,Experiment 3 used a 4 Condition (No Retrieval Practice Control, Easy Retrieval Practice, Medium Retrieval Practice, Difficult Retrieval Practice Difficult) 2 Performance Prediction (Origin
13、al and Adjusted) mixed randomized repeated model. Participants were randomly assigned to either the No Retrieval Practice Control (n = 68), Easy (n = 69), Medium (n = 70), or difficult retrieval practice (n = 67) and made two performance predictions.,4.1.3. Materials and procedure The materials and
14、procedure were nearly identical to the previous experiments with the key exceptions being that participants in the retrieval practice conditions attempted to recall four practice items, rather than one practice item (as was the case in Experiments 1 and 2). The four items were all easy items, all di
15、fficult items, or a combination of easy and difficulty items to make up the medium difficulty condition according to norms reported in Grimaldi et al. (2010).,4.2. Experiment 3 results 4.2.1. Metacognitive accuracy analysis,First, retrieval practice performance depended on the condition easy, medium
16、, or difficult (F(3,270) = 124.13,MSE = 0.04, p .001, 2 p = .58). Participants in the Easy Retrieval practice condition had the most retrieval practice success (M = 0.62) followed by participants in the Medium Retrieval Practice condition (M = 0.41), and finally, participants in the Difficult Retrieval Practice had the least amount of success (M = 0.13).,图2 实验3中被试在初始预测和调整预测中总的百分比。虚线为每种条件下的平均回忆成绩。,Dunlosky et al. (2002) argued that the most effective type of retrieval practice would b
