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1、生产和企业组织,第6章,生产理论和边际产品,6.1,3,生产系统,Firms,4,生产函数,The production function specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs. It is defined for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge. It looks like this: Q = F(K, L, R),Q= F(K,L,R),Q is the quantity of some pr
2、oducts you want to produce. K is the capital or plant and equipment that you will need for the production. L is the number of employees or quantity of labor. R is a catch-all (包括所有的) term for other things like raw materials (原料) and energy. F is the state of the current technology.,5,6,专业术语,The prod
3、uction function specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge. 要点：给定投入时的各个可能的产量中最大的产量。在给定的工程和技术知识条件下。,7,总产量和平均产量,Total product designates the total amount of output produced in physical units. Average produc
4、t equals total product divided by total units of input. 说明：平均产量通常是指某一种投入要素的平均产量。,8,边际产量,The marginal product (边际产量) of an input such as labor is the extra output added by 1 extra unit of that input while other inputs are hold constant. 其他要素保持不变，一种投入要素增加一单位，带来的产出的增加量。,边际产量图示,9,Firm,10,最大产出,劳动的边际产量的含义
5、是：投入 N+1 单位劳动时的最大产量与投入 N 单位劳动时的最大产量之差。 增加 1 单位劳动后，所有的分工都要按最优方式重新安排，然后得出投入 N+1 劳动的产出水平。,11,4000,3000,2000,1000,3000,2000,1000,0,1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3,4,5,Labor,Labor,Marginal product (per unit of labor),Total product,报酬递减定律,Under the law of diminishing returns, a firm will get less and less extra output wh
6、en it adds additional units of an input while holding other inputs fixed. In other words, the marginal product of each unit of input will decline as the amount of that input increases, holding all other inputs constant.,12,13,14,2000,1000,500,300,100,边际产量和总产量的关系,产量,劳动力,总产量,边际产量,总产量下降,15,平均产量和总产量的关系,
7、产量,劳动力,平均产量增大,阶段,总产量,平均产量,总产量下降,阶段,阶段,平均产量减小,16,17,生产的比例性,生产要求投入多种要素，而且要素之间通常有一定的比例性要求。有些生产要求投入要素之间的比例性高一些，有些则要求低一些。 例如，工业生产的比例性要求资本一般高一点，农业生产的比例性要求资本低一点。 正是要素投入的比例性要求，形成一种要素的报酬递减现象。,18,实际的报酬递减定律,当其他的投入固定，而一种投入的数量由 0 逐步增加时，边际产量开始可能递增，但迟早递减。,O,Marginal product,Quantity of labor,说明,我们在计算一种要素的边际产品时，利用“
8、投入 N+1 单位要素时的最大产量与投入 N 单位要素时的最大产量之差”来衡量。 对于劳动而言，较多的人数可以形成更好的分工模式，对于资本而言，较多的资本可以使用更有效的生产方法，因此，可能使边际产品存在递增阶段。,19,20,规模报酬问题,What would happen to wheat production if land, labor, water, and other inputs were increased by the same proportion (比例)? These questions refer to the returns to scale (规模报酬).,21,
9、Firm,K L R,Q,规模报酬图示,22,规模报酬的三种情形,There are three important cases of returns to scale: Constant returns to scale (规模报酬不变), Increasing returns to scale (规模报酬递增), Decreasing returns to scale (规模报酬递减).,规模报酬不变,Constant returns to scale denote a case where a change in all inputs leads to a proportional (成
10、比例的) change in output. 手工艺行业往往具有规模报酬不变性。,23,a = b,规模报酬递增,Increasing returns to scale (also called economies of scale ) arise when an increase in all inputs leads to a more-than-proportional increase in the level of output. 化工企业往往具有规模报酬递增性。,24,a b,影响规模报酬递增的因素,Related Factors: labor specialization (专业
11、化) managerial (管理的) specialization efficient capital by-products (副产品) and other such factors.,25,规模报酬递减,Decreasing returns to scale occur when a balanced increase of all inputs leads to a less-than-proportional increase in total output.,26,a b,导致规模报酬递减的原因,Causes of diseconomies (不经济) of scale: plan
12、t may get too big for effective management; workers may begin to feel alienated (疏远的) from their jobs. 管理活动自身一般随着规模增大而效率递减，当管理因素的份额较大时，将显现规模报酬递减性。,27,范围经济性,Economies of scope occur when a number of different products can be produced more efficiently together than apart.,大炮,面包,产品转换曲线,28,生产大炮和面包的规模收益不
13、变,范围经济性说明,大炮,面包,产品转换曲线,29,面包 数量,大炮 数量,保持面包数量不变，可以生产更多的大炮。,保持大炮数量不变，可以生产更多的面包。,30,短期和长期,We define the short run (短期) as a period in which firms can adjust production by changing variable factors (可变要素) such as materials and labor but cannot change fixed factors (固定要素) such as capital. The long run (长
14、期) is a period sufficiently long so that all factors including capital can be adjusted.,“短期和长期”的说明,经济学意义上的短期和长期不是以时间长短划分的。 当一个农户的土地面积给定时，他的经营就是短期的。如果他每半年就可以重新决定租用多少土地，那么半年以上的时间对他来说就是长期的。 对于一个汽车制造厂，如果在三年的时间里无法建设新的生产流水线，那么三年的时间对它来说就属于短期生产。,31,短期分析和长期分析,短期分析通常考虑某一种要素的数量变化对于产出的影响。例如，劳动的边际产量和平均产量等。 长期分析通
15、常考虑所有要素的数量变化对于产出的影响。例如，规模报酬现象。,32,技术变革,Technological change refers to in the processes for producing goods and services, changes in old products, or introduction of new products. Process innovation (工艺创新): new engineering knowledge improves production techniques for existing products. Product innova
16、tion (产品创新): new or improved products are introduced in the marketplace.,33,34,技术变革改变生产函数,1995 Technology,2005 Technology,Input,Total product,Technological change shifts production function upward.,35,36,背景知识,技术进步的机制：是计划经济还是市场经济具有优势？ 在社会产品结构简单的历史条件下，计划经济具有一定的优势，但具有较大的政治风险。 在产品多样化而且更新更替速度加快的历史条件下，市场经济具有明显的优势。,37,总量生产函数,Q is the total output; K is the capital; L is the labor. The famous Cobb-Douglas production function:,Q = F(K, L),Y=AK0.25L
