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1、,Section 6 Fallacies,Definition,Common types of fallacies,Further study,critical thinking chapter 6,7 - brooke noel moore,Definition,Can you tell whats wrong with these arguments?,Im not a cake, Im a girl. We hope youll accept our plan, We spent the last three months working extra time on it. If I h
2、ad studied hard, I would definitely have passed the test.,False analogy 错误类比 Ad Misericordiam 文不对题 Hypothesis Contrary to Fact 与事实相反的假设,Definition,A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic and rhetoric resulting in a lack of validity, or a lack of soundness. A fallacy is the concept associated wit
3、h the argumentation, is a wrong reasoning form. 谬误是与论证相关的概念，是一种错误的推理形式。,Definition,delimma 两难推理,How to solve this problem if youre the judge? “半费之讼”,Definition,informal fallacy（非形式谬误）,formal fallacy（形式谬误）,deductive fallacy（演绎谬论）,inductive fallacy（归纳谬论）,Definition,informal fallacy（非形式谬误）,Informal fal
4、lacies are arguments that are fallacious for reasons other than structural or formal flaws. 非形式谬误是从形式上看是符合逻辑的，但因为其中因知识水平、常识、概念定义等错误而得出谬误的结论，如：词语歧义、语句歧义、诉诸无知、诉诸武断、诉诸感情、人身攻击、诉诸权威、因人纳言、因人废言等。,Definition,formal fallacy（形式谬误）,A formal fallacy is a pattern of reasoning (推理形式) that is always wrong. This is
5、 due to a flaw in the logical structure of the argument which renders the argument invalid. 形式谬误是指那种由于违反形式逻辑的规则而产生的逻辑形式不正确的各种谬误，如：同语反复、循环定义、概念不当并列、偷换概念、转移论题、自相矛盾、两难推理、以偏盖全、循环论证、倒置因果等。,Definition,deductive fallacy（演绎谬论）,A deductive fallacy is defined as a deductive argument that is invalid. The argum
6、ent itself could have true premises, but still have a false conclusion. Eg: People in Kentucky support a border fence. People in New York do not support a border fence. Therefore, people in New York do not support people in Kentucky.,Definition,inductive fallacy（归纳谬论）,Inductive fallacy also called f
7、aulty generalization, is a conclusion about all or many instances of a phenomenon that has been reached on the basis of just one or just a few instances of that phenomenon. It is an example of jumping to conclusions. For example, If we meet an angry person from a given country, we may suspect that m
8、ost people in country are often angry.,Think,所有的演员都是外向的 周迅是个演员 所以，周迅是外向的,第一组是演绎论证，因为是从一般到个别，结论严格从前提中得来。演绎论证的最基本要求就是前提一定要正确，才会保证推断正确。 第二组是归纳论证的直观形式，是根据一类事物中的部分对象具有某种属性，从而得出该类事物所有对象都具有某种属性的思维方法。 演绎论证的前提和归纳论证的结论如果有例外，则论证就不成立。,周迅是外向的 赵薇是外向的 范冰冰是外向的 所以，所有的女演员都是外向的,找出这两组论证的谬误：,Think,有人向执法人员质疑乱罚款的问题，执法人员说：
9、“罚款本身不是目的，严格执法是为了维护人民的合法权益。“ 顾客：请问，我的排骨面怎么还没来，我等了已有半小时了。 服务员员：你为什么非要吃排骨面，你不能吃竦酱面吗？ 在上面的例子中，执法人员、服务员都犯了什么错误？,转移论题 在同一思维过程中必须保持论题自身的同一，否则就会犯形式谬误中“转移论题“或“偷换论题“的错误。,brain functions,Common types of fallacies,Dicto Simpliciter 草率前提,It draws a conclusion from an over-simplistic statement of a rule. Its an
10、argument based on an unqualified generalization. Its also known as sweeping generalization(笼统概括).,Milk is good to peoples health. Therefore, everybody should drink milk. 世说新语方正：“王献之数岁时，尝看诸门生樗蒱，见有胜负，因曰：南风不竞。门生毕轻其小儿，乃曰：此郎亦管中窥豹，时见一斑。”,brain functions,Common types of fallacies,Dicto Simpliciter 草率前提,Fal
11、lacy of accident 偶然谬误,Converse Fallacy 逆偶然谬误,是一种“通则凌驾例外”的非形式谬误，如： 超速是不对的。 所以，救护车不应该超速。,是一种“例外凌驾通则”的非形式谬误，如： 救护车可以超速。 所以，我们不应该设低速限制。,brain functions,Common types of fallacies,Hasty Generalization 仓促概括,It draws a conclusion from a sample that is too small, that is to say, its made up of too few cases.
12、 是一种非形式谬误，指未充分考虑一般性的情形，只凭不充分或不具代表性的实例或样本就推论出归纳性的结论。,Fred, the Australian, stole my wallet. Thus, all Australians are thieves. 我在台北住了有一个礼拜，其中三天都在下雨。 所以，台北大约有一半的时间是雨季。,brain functions,Common types of fallacies,样本数量太小或不是随机选取的，样本不具备代表性时，就会发生仓促概括的谬误。 e.g.： 同事买的朗逸只用了半年发动机就出现了问题； 朋友买的途观，刚开了四个月，变速器就出现了问题； 结
13、论是：上海大众生产的汽车简直是一堆破烂货。 同上，就知道为什么仅仅靠90天老鼠的转基因实验就推断出转基因食物对人类无害在逻辑上的谬误了。 “统计陷阱”可以专门当做仓促谬误的一类，经济学“专家”尤其偏爱这样的统计，网上有个段子对这种“统计陷阱”谬误揭露得很深刻：“张家有财一千万、九个邻居穷光蛋、平均起来算一算、个个都是张百万”,Hasty Generalization 仓促概括,brain functions,Common types of fallacies,Post Hoc 牵强附会,Post hoc,ergo propter hoc is a Latin phrase means “aft
14、er this, therefore because of this“.A Post Hoc is a fallacy with the following form: A occurs before B. Therefore A is the cause of B.,Lets not take Bill on our picnic, every time we take him out with us,it rains. 我一洗车就要下雨 我只要去酒吧看直播，中国队一定输球。,brain functions,Common types of fallacies,Contradictory Pr
15、emises 矛盾前提,An argument that draws a conclusion from inconsistent or incompatible premises. Essentially, a proposition is contradictory when it asserts and denies the same thing. 即指从不一致或不相容的前提中得出的结论，,He decided to give up all his decisions. 楚人有鬻（音y，卖）盾与矛者，誉之曰：“吾盾之坚，物莫能陷也。”又誉其矛曰：“吾矛之利，于物无不陷也。”或曰：“以子之
16、矛，陷子之盾，何如？”其人弗能应也。夫不可陷之盾与无不陷之矛，不可同世而立。,brain functions,Common types of fallacies,Ad Misericordiam文不对题、诉诸感情,A fallacy in which someone tries to win support for an idea by exploiting the opponents feelings of pity or guilt. It is a specific kind of appealing to emotion. 诸如恐惧、嫉妒、怜悯、骄傲等，每个心智健康的人都会受感情影响，所以这种谬误很有效，但这却是一种极不诚实的手段。,法官问贼为什么偷东西，贼说，我刚来本地不久，钱就被
