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1、The Use of English 8.1 Pragmatic Approach to Language8.1.1Pragmatics（语用学） It is the study of meaning in use. meaning in context. speaker meaning. contextual meaning.Pragmatics studies communication (utterance production and comprehension) from a functional (i.e. social, cultural, cognitive) perspect
2、ive.8.1.2 Semantics(语义学) V.S PragmaticsSemanticism: semantics includes pragmaticsPragmaticism: pragmatics includes semanticsComplementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.8.2 Deictic Expressions （指示语）8.2.1DeixisDeixis: (from Greek) anchoring
3、, pointing (toward the context) phenomenon. The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics, indexicals ( or indexical / deictic expressions).Examples: pronouns, demonstratives, time and place adverbs, and some grammatical categories such as tense.8.2.2 Characteristics in useThe ego
4、centricity of deixis Deictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. The unmarked points, called the deictic center, are typically assumed to be as follows (S. Levinson: Pragmatics): I love this game!1) the central person is the speaker2) the central time is the time
5、at which the speaker produces the utterance3) the central place is the speakers location at utterance time4) the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance5) the social center is the speakers social status and rank, to which the status or rank
6、of addressees or referents is relative.8.2.3 Deictic VS. Non-deicticDeictic: gestural/symbolicYou, you, but not you, are dismissed. (gestural)What did you say? (Symbolic)Non-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoricJack is a student. He comes from Britain.You can never tell what sex they are nowadays. There
7、 you go again./There we go.I did this and that.8.2.4 Classification of deicticPerson deixisPlace deixisTime deixisSocial deixisDiscourse deixis8.3 Speech Act TheorySaying is acting. (John Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 1962)“Speech acts” refer to actions performed via utterances. Speech acts a
8、re “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.8.3.1 Constatives (表述句） and performatives （施为句）a. There is a book on the desk.b. I promise Ill be there ten sharp tomorrow.hereby-test: first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, performative verbs (
9、with exceptions, though)8.3.3 Collapse of Performative Hypothesisa. Not all performative utterances require a performative verb;b. An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb;8.3.4 felicity conditions （适切条件）a. Essential condition （基本条件）b. Preparatory condit
10、ion (预备条件）c. Propositional content condition （命题内容条件）d. Sincerity condition （真诚条件）Felicity conditions for a promise:1) The speaker can do what is promised; (基本）2）The promised act has not taken place yet; (预备）3）The utterance is about a future act; The promised act is to the benefit of the hearer; The
11、 promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;（命题内容）4) The speaker means what he says. （真诚） etc. Searles classification of illocutionary actsRepresentatives/assertives（阐述类）describe, inform, deny, state, claim, assert, remind, etc.Directives （指令类）:request, ask, urge, tell, demand, order, advise, com
12、mand, beseech, etc.Commissives （承诺类）:commit, promise, threaten, pledge, consent, refuse, offer, guarantee, etc.Expressives （表达类）:apologize, boast, thank, deplore, welcome, congratulate, greet, etc.Declarations （宣告类）:declare, resign, appoint, nominate, bless, christen, name, etc.8.4 Presupposition8.4
13、.1Presupposition and entailment8.4.2Presupposition triggers: linguistics device that make inference possible.9.1 Cooperation in using English9.1.1Cooperative PrincipleMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of t
14、he talk exchange in which you are engaged. H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 19759.1.2Maxims of the principleQuality: Be truthful.a. Do not say what you believe to be false.b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Quantity: Be informative.a. Make your contribution as informative a
15、s required (for the current purposes of the exchange)b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Relation: Be relevant.Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.Manner: Be perspicuous (明晰).a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)d. Be orderly.9.1.3 ImplicatureIt is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. When any of the maxims is blatantly(公然地) violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated, a particular conversational implicature arises.
